0008-3194/2006/209–218/$2.00/©JCCA 2006 Defining Quackery: An examination of the Manitoba Medical Profession and the early development of professional unity Adam Scalena BA (Hon)* In the early 1920s, the Manitoba medical profession Au début des années 1920, la profession médicale au reached a pinnacle in its opposition to alternative Manitoba a atteint un sommet dans son opposition à la medicine, waging an aggressive four-year campaign médecine alternative, menant une campagne énergique against chiropractic and osteopathy to “protect” the de quatre ans contre la chiropratique et l’ostéopathie public from the dangers of alternative forms of healing pour « protéger » le public des dangers des formes and prevent “irregulars” from establishing their alternatives de soins et prévenir les « irréguliers » practices. It was during these same years that the d’ouvrir leurs cabinets. C’est au cours de cette période Manitoba medical profession was able to successfully que la profession médicale manitobaine a été en mesure overcome many internal problems of consensus and de réussir à régler plusieurs problèmes internes external problems of legitimacy. Examining the years consensuels et des problèmes externes de légitimité. En leading up to, during, and following the campaign, examinant les années avant, pendant et après cette this paper demonstrates how the Manitoba medical campagne, le présent article démontre comment le profession’s militant reaction to osteopathy and militantisme de la profession médicale du Manitoba chiropractic during these years helped strengthen and contre l’ostéopathie et la chiropratique a contribué differentiate orthodox practitioners as a group, thus pendant ces années à renforcer et à différencier les reinforcing their authority within the public realm. praticiens orthodoxes en tant que groupe, renforçant (JCCA 2006; 50(3):209–218) ainsi leur autorité sur le domaine public. (JACC 2006; 50(3):209–218) key words: chiropractic, history, Manitoba. mots clés : chiropratique, histoire, Manitoba. Introduction the other, scholars have posited the “monopolization” In recent years historians and social scientists have fo- thesis, claiming that professionalization was a movement cused extensively on the rise of prominent professions by orthodox practitioners to attain and maintain hegemo- throughout North America and on how these professions ny in a highly competitive marketplace.2 Indeed, the have established their authority. In regards to the medical former interpretation has force: few could deny the gains profession, studies have, for the most part, fit one of two of mainstream medicine resulting from the discovery of dominant perspectives. Scholars, on the one hand, have insulin, sulfa drugs, and antibiotics in the first half of the argued that advancements in medical science solidified twentieth century. Science alone, however, does not ade- orthodox medicine’s authority in the public sphere.1 On quately explain the medical profession’s cultural authori- * 3276 Assiniboine Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3K 0B1. Email: [email protected] Phone 204-338-3025. © JCCA 2006. J Can Chiropr Assoc 2006; 50(3) 209 Defining quackery ty, political sway, and economic prosperity achieved many historians and social scientists, have argued that the during these years. medical profession’s response stemmed from occupation- It is, then, the latter perspective to which this paper al insecurities and from what orthodox practitioners con- lends itself, though not without caution. What follows is sidered to be a threat to their economic position.5 This largely an account of the Manitoba medical profession perspective is compelling, but seems to lend itself more reinforcing its authority in the early 1920s; though, the readily to other areas of Canada, such as Ontario, the focus is on aspects of professional development that province with the most liberal medical act, and where, many previous studies have failed to emphasize. Monop- during the first half of the twentieth century, over sixty olistic practices alone do not inform the entire story; as percent of Canada’s osteopaths and chiropractors resid- one scholar aptly noted, “many occupations seek monop- ed.6 The Manitoba medical profession, undeniably, per- olistic power; to cite the impulse is no explanation of why ceived alternative medicine as an irritation, an outrage, some succeed and others fail.”3 Many past studies have and perhaps even to a lesser extent as competition; how- examined the response of orthodox medicine to external ever, in Manitoba there seems to be a third possible ex- threats, assuming, first, the presence of a strong shared planation for the medical profession’s militant response. professional identity and, second, the collective efforts of Judging by the sheer scale and short time span of the the profession to challenge these forces. What is often medical profession’s campaign against osteopathy and overlooked is how organized medicine both overcame in- chiropractic during the early 1920s, one might assume ternal dissension and mobilized effectively. It is to this that, prior to 1921, alternative medicine in Manitoba was deficiency that this case study of organized medicine in relatively non-existent. One might further assume that, Manitoba contributes; it demonstrates that the attempts based on the low level of interest the medical profession by osteopathy and chiropractic to secure legislation in the had in alternative medicine in the years following 1925, first few years of the 1920s provided an impetus for the that the presence of osteopathy and chiropractic in Mani- Manitoba medical profession to organize and further de- toba had been successfully subdued. These assumptions, velop its professional identity. Allopathy’s timely re- however, would be mistaken. Osteopathy and chiroprac- sponse to proposed legislation helped strengthen and tic, to be clear, were a consistent presence in Manitoba differentiate orthodox practitioners as a group, which re- from the early years of the twentieth century right inforced their authority within the public realm. through to 1945, when both groups secured independent Many accounts of medical professionalization discuss legislation, gaining their rights to practice legally within the turbulent relationship between orthodox and alterna- the province.7 Why, then, was the Manitoba medical pro- tive medicine. For historians, the paper trail left behind fession’s response unusually adamant during these four from these battles offers a window into the methods each years? It is the link between intention and consequences, group adopted to wage effective campaigns. The impulse planning and mobilizing, efforts and gains that we might behind organized medicine’s response has been highly understand its reaction. contested. Orthodox physicians, arguing the inadequacy of alternative theories, have claimed that their aggressive Discussion reaction to alternative medicine was based on a genuine On May 3, 1871, the first legislature in Manitoba enacted concern for public health. Medical men, then, from their a statute to incorporate the medical profession.8 The Col- privileged position, opted to protect the public from ille- lege of Physicians and Surgeons of Manitoba (CPSM) gitimate health practices.4 Indeed, the Manitoba medical was established as a corporate body responsible for the li- profession rallied around the notion that alternative prac- censing and registration of medical practitioners. Em- titioners, or “quacks,” posed a threat to public health. Not powered by the Manitoba Medical Act, the CPSM set only did this rhetoric provide the framework for how it both the standards for who could legally practice medi- discussed osteopathy and chiropractic within the profes- cine within Manitoba and the penalties for those who did sion, but it was how the profession presented its stance to not comply with set restrictions. This meant that all acts the public and to legislators as well. of healing practiced outside of the guidelines recognized Alternative practitioners, on the contrary, along with by the CPSM were deemed illegal and subject to a fine. 210 J Can Chiropr Assoc 2006; 50(3) A Scalena Yet this did not impede alternative practitioners from de- been injured while receiving care from a local chiroprac- veloping their practice within the province, nor did it pre- tor.13 They, too, requested a detailed description of the le- vent the public from seeking their services. gal standing of alternative medicine within the province. The first osteopaths began to arrive in Manitoba in These letters overwhelmingly reflect those Manitobans 1899, and soon thereafter were followed by chiroprac- reluctant to embrace alternative medicine or infuriated by tors.9 By 1913, both groups were established and had be- its existence; though, another letter written in 1919 by W. gun advertising their services in local newspapers. From Morley Story to V. Winkler, Minister of Agriculture and this point forward, based on records provided by the Immigration in Winnipeg, suggests that there were also CPSM, osteopaths and chiropractors offered their servic- Manitobans benefiting from the services of alternative es regularly and seldom with repercussion. Both groups, medicine. Story wrote in regards to a rumor about a pro- moreover, consistently organized and brought forth bills posed bill to be presented to the House in which, if with the intention of broadening their practices. passed, would “practically mean that the public will be Although the CPSM