1 PLAGUE AND CONSEQUENCES Athens 431 – 421 BC Torbjørn Iversen Master thesis 2011, English version 2014 Department of Archeology, Conservation and History Faculty of Humanities University of Oslo Keywords Thucydides, plague, Athens, risk factors, typhoid fever, epidemic typhus. 2 Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 5 1.1 The common theory of the plague ........................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Method ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Intention of the study ............................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2: Sources and Methods ............................................................................................................ 8 2. 1. 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 8 2.1.2 The Primary Source ................................................................................................................................ 8 2.1.3 The credibility of Thucydides ................................................................................................................. 9 2.1.4 Source credibility .................................................................................................................................. 13 2.1.5 Other written sources .......................................................................................................................... 20 2.2 Method ..................................................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Clinical Medicine .................................................................................................................................. 23 2.2.2 Paleo-epidemiology.............................................................................................................................. 24 2.2.3 Paleo-microbiology .............................................................................................................................. 25 2.2.4 Archaeology .......................................................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 3: Risk factors for disease in Athens .........................................................................................29 3.1 Environment as a risk factor ................................................................................................................... 29 3.1.1 Climate and landscape ......................................................................................................................... 30 3.1.2 Drinking Water ..................................................................................................................................... 34 3.1.2.1 The terms “source, public fountain, well, and cistern” .................................................................. 35 3.1.2.2 Drinking water from river ................................................................................................................. 37 3.1.2.3 Drinking water directly from groundwater (Source) ...................................................................... 39 3.1.2.4 Drinking water through pipelines .................................................................................................... 40 3.1.3 Hygienic conditions in city and homes ............................................................................................... 44 3.1.3.1 Outdoor sewage ................................................................................................................................ 45 3.1.3.2 Water and sewage inside the house ................................................................................................ 47 3.1.4 Overall assessment of environment as risk factor ............................................................................. 48 3.2 Size of population and internal risk factors ........................................................................................... 49 3.2.1What did the Athenians eat? ................................................................................................................ 53 3.2.2 Personal hygiene and clothing ............................................................................................................ 57 3 3.2.2.1 Use of the baths ................................................................................................................................ 58 3.2.2.2 Clothing .............................................................................................................................................. 60 3.2.3 Overall assessment of internal risk factors......................................................................................... 61 Chapter 4: Disease of the past, present diagnostic ................................................................................62 4.1 The patient record ................................................................................................................................... 62 4.2 Assessment of the medical information ................................................................................................ 64 4.2.1 Quality of data from the medical record ............................................................................................ 64 4.2.2 Infectious disease ................................................................................................................................. 66 4.2.3 Poisoning ............................................................................................................................................... 73 4.3 Paleo-epidemiological assessment ........................................................................................................ 75 4.4 Bacteriological examination: is it possible? ........................................................................................... 77 4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 79 Chapter 5: What is the diagnosis? ..........................................................................................................81 5.1 Infection through drinking water ........................................................................................................... 81 5.2 Infection with food .................................................................................................................................. 85 5.3 Contagion as a result of overcrowding .................................................................................................. 90 5.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 92 Chapter 6: The consequences of the plague ...........................................................................................93 6.1 Demography and plague ......................................................................................................................... 93 6.2 Plague and Society................................................................................................................................. 101 6.2.1 Construction work .............................................................................................................................. 103 6.2.2 Cultural life .......................................................................................................................................... 106 6.2.3 War and plague .................................................................................................................................. 108 6.2.3.1 War Cruise before the plague ........................................................................................................ 108 6.2.3.2 War Cruise during the plague ......................................................................................................... 109 6.2.3.3 War Cruise after the plague until the peace in 421 BC ................................................................ 112 6.2.3.4 War and plague, what was the result? .......................................................................................... 113 Chapter 7: Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................117 7. 1 The way forward ................................................................................................................................... 119 Literature .............................................................................................................................................124 Sources ......................................................................................................................................................... 124 History .........................................................................................................................................................