This page intentionally left blank Theories of Developmental PSYCHOLOGY Publisher: Catherine Woods Acquisitions Editor: Sarah Berger Marketing Manager: Amy Shefferd, Jennifer Bilello Associate Managing Editor: Tracey Kuehn Art Director: Babs Reingold Cover and Text Designer: Kevin Kall Photo Editor: Christine Buese Project Editor: Kerry O’Shaughnessy Production Manager: Julia DeRosa Composition: Northeastern Graphic, Inc. Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley Library of Congress Control Number: 2009940609 ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-1634-0 ISBN-10: 1-4292-1634-4 ©2011, 2002 by Worth Publishers ©1993, 1989 by W.H. Freeman and Company All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First printing Worth Publishers 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 www.worthpublishers.com Theories of Developmental PSYCHOLOGY fifth edition Patricia H. Miller University of Georgia WORTH PUBLISHERS This page intentionally left blank > CONTENTS Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 What is a Theory? 3 What is a Developmental Theory? 7 Of What Value is a Developmental Theory? 11 Organizing Information / Guiding Research What Main Issues of Developmental Psychology Do Theories Address? 14 What Is the Basic Nature of Humans? / Is Development Qualitative or Quantitative? / How Do Nature and Nurture Contribute to Development? / What Is It That Develops? Summary 25 Organization of this Book 25 Suggested Readings 26 2 Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory and the Neo-Piagetians 27 Biographical Sketch 28 General Orientation to the Theory 32 Genetic Epistemology / Biological Approach / Structuralism / Stage Approach / Methodology Description of the Stages 38 Sensorimotor Period (Roughly Birth to 2 Years) / Preoperational Period (Roughly 2 to 7 Years) / Concrete Operational Period (Roughly 7 to 11 Years) / Formal Operational Period (Roughly 11 to 15 Years) / An Overview vi CONTENTS Memory 60 Mechanisms of Development 62 Cognitive Organization / Cognitive Adaptation / Cognitive Equilibration / Section Overview Position on Developmental Issues 68 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 72 Evaluation of the Theory 73 Strengths / Weaknesses Piaget’s Own Modifications of His Theory 86 The Neo-Piagetians 89 Robbie Case / Kurt Fischer / Neo-Piagetian Themes Contemporary Research 98 Infants’ Advanced Competencies / Domain-Specific Concepts / Mechanisms of Development / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Summary 102 Suggested Readings 104 3 Freud’s and Erikson’s Psychoanalytic Theories 105 FREUD 106 Biographical Sketch 106 General Orientation to the Theory 110 Dynamic Approach / Structural Approach / Topographic Approach / Stage Approach / Normal–Abnormal Continuum / Methodology Description of the Stages 124 Oral Stage (Roughly Birth to 1 Year) / Anal Stage (Roughly 1 to 3 Years) / Phallic Stage (Roughly 3 to 5 Years) / Period of Latency (Roughly 5 Years to the Beginning of Puberty) / Genital Stage (Adolescence) / Case Study of “Little Hans” Mechanisms of Development 132 Position on Developmental Issues 133 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 135 CONTENTS vii Evaluation of the Theory 136 Strengths / Weaknesses Contemporary Research 141 ERIKSON 143 Biographical Sketch 144 General Orientation to the Theory 145 Psychosocial Stages / Emphasis on Identity / Expansion of Psychoanalytic Methodology Description of the Stages 150 Stage 1: Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Roughly Birth to 1 Year) / Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (Roughly 2 to 3 Years) / Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt (Roughly 4 to 5 Years) / Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority (Roughly 6 Years to Puberty) / Stage 5: Identity and Repudiation Versus Identity Diffusion (Adolescence) / Stage 6: Intimacy and Solidarity Versus Isolation (Young Adulthood) / Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation and Self-Absorption (Middle Adulthood) / Stage 8: Integrity Versus Despair (Late Adulthood) Mechanisms of Development 156 Position on Developmental Issues 156 Applications 157 Evaluation of the Theory 157 Strengths / Weaknesses Contemporary Research 159 Summary 161 Suggested Readings 163 4 Vygotsky and the Sociocultural Approach 165 Biographical Sketch 167 General Orientation to the Theory 170 Child-in-Activity-in-Cultural-Context As the Unit of Study / Zone of Proximal Development / The Sociocultural Origins of Individual Mental Functioning: The Intermental Constructs the Intramental / Tools Provided by a Culture Mediate Intellectual Functioning / Methodology Examples of Vygotskian—Sociocultural Research 185 Private Speech and Inner Speech / Development of Concepts viii CONTENTS Mechanisms of Development 190 Position on Developmental Issues 192 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 194 Evaluation of the Theory 196 Strengths / Weaknesses A Related Approach: Developing-Person-In-Context 203 Contemporary Research 207 Collaborative Problem Solving / Research Across Cultures / Development Through Narratives and Conversations / Concluding Comments about Contemporary Vygotskian–Sociocultural Research Summary 218 Suggested Readings 220 5 Social Learning Theory 223 History of the Theory 225 Learning Theory / Social Learning Theory General Orientation to the Theory 236 Observational Learning / Causal Model Includes Environment– Person–Behavior System / Cognitive Contributions to Learning / Self-Efficacy and Agency Examples of Developmental Research: Moral Judgments and Gender Roles 247 Moral Judgments and Behavior / Gender-Role Development Mechanisms of Development 251 Position on Developmental Issues 252 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 255 Evaluation of the Theory 257 Strengths / Weaknesses Contemporary Research 260 Summary 262 Suggested Readings 263 CONTENTS ix 6 Information-Processing Theory 265 History of the Theory 269 General Orientation to the Theory 271 Humans as Information-Processing Systems / Development as Self-Modification / Task Analysis / Methodology Major Developmental Approaches 280 Memory / Metamemory / Strategies: Acquisition, Variability, and Choice / Rules for Problem Solving / Production and Connectionist Simulations of Problem Solving and Learning / Intelligence Mechanisms of Development 306 Position on Developmental Issues 310 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 312 Evaluation of the Theory 313 Strengths / Weaknesses Contemporary Research 320 Summary 322 Suggested Readings 323 7 Ethology and Other Evolutionary Theories 325 History of the Theory 326 General Orientation to the Theory 330 Species-Specific Innate Behavior / Evolutionary Perspective / Learning Predispositions / Methodology Contributions to Human Developmental Psychology 343 Infant–Caretaker Attachment / Peer Interaction / Problem Solving Mechanisms of Development 357 Position on Developmental Issues 357 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 360 Evaluation of the Theory 360 Strengths / Weaknesses Contemporary Research 368 x CONTENTS Summary 374 Suggested Readings 375 8 Gibson’s Ecological Theory of Perceptual Development 377 Biographical Sketch 378 General Orientation to the Theory 379 Ecological Approach: Affordances / Information Is Specified in Stimulation / Humans as Active Perceivers / Methodology Developmental Trends 386 Increasing Specificity and Economy in the Perception of Affordances / Optimization of Attention What Infants Learn About 389 Communication / Interaction with Objects / Locomotion in the Spatial Layout Mechanisms of Development 396 Position on Developmental Issues 396 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops Applications 397 Evaluation of the Theory 398 Strengths / Weaknesses Contemporary Research 401 Summary 402 Suggested Readings 403 9 Contemporary Minitheories and Emerging Approaches 405 The Theory Theory 406 Modularity Nativism 411 Dynamic-Systems Theory 414 Critical Psychology: Are Theories of Development Gendered? 419 Position On Developmental Issues 421 Summary 421 Suggested Reading 422 CONTENTS xi 10 Reflections 423 Developmental Issues Revisited 424 Human Nature / Qualitative Versus Quantitative Development / Nature Versus Nurture / What Develops A Need for Better Theoretical Accounts of Mechanisms of Development 428 Historical Progress of Developmental Theories 430 The Future of Developmental Theories 434 Conclusions 437 REFERENCES 439 NAME INDEX 481 SUBJECT INDEX 490 This page intentionally left blank PREFACE “What is your theory of psychological development?” As an undergrad- uate I faced that very essay question on my final exam in an introductory child psychology class. Drawing on all the theories I had ever heard of, I modestly generated a 6 (age) ϫ 20 (developmental tasks) matrix that covered all of development. My interest in theories was launched. Per- haps if I had been given a multiple-choice test this book would address a different topic. In all five editions of this book I have tried to show the “big picture” of psychological development. Sometimes students are frustrated by fact-laden textbooks that do not provide frameworks in which to fit the facts. It is often not clear, for example, why a Swiss philosopher would be interested in children’s numerical judgments after a row of objects is spread