01/2014 PANORAMA INSIGHTS INTO ASIAN AND EUROPEAN AFFAIRS MORE THAN A GAME SPORTS, SOCIETY AND POLITICS Konrad Adenauer Stiftung Panorama: Insights into Asian and European Affairs is a series of occasional papers published by the Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung’s “Regional Programme Political Dialogue Asia/Singapore”. © 2014 Copyright by Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Singapore All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission from the publisher. Editor: Dr. Wilhelm Hofmeister Sub-editor: Megha Sarmah Publisher: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung Ltd 34/36 Bukit Pasoh Road Singapore 089848 Registration Number: 201228783N Tel: (65) 6227-2001 Tel: (65) 6227-8343 Email: [email protected] Website: http//:www.kas.de/singapore Manuscript offers, review copies, exchange journals, and requests for subscription are to be sent to the editors. The responsibility for facts and opinions in this publication rests exclusively with the authors and their interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung. Cover photograph by ©iStock.com/RapidEye Design, Layout and Typeset: Select Books Pte Ltd 65A, Jalan Tenteram #02-06, St Michael’s Industrial Estate Singapore 328958 Website: www.selectbooks.com.sg PanoraMa InSIGhtS Into aSIan and euroPean affaIrS More than a Game Sports, Society and Politics Contents PREFACE 7 Dangerous Liaisons? Sport, Politics, Economics and Events 9 John Nauright The Attraction of Sport Mega-Events to States of All Political Hues 17 Jonathan Grix The Politics of Football in Asia 23 Wolfram Manzenreiter Sport and Nationalism in China 31 Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong Sports and Politics in South Asia: The India-Pakistan Rivalry 37 Ronojoy Sen Football and National Identity in Europe 43 Alexander Brand and Arne Niemann Political Economy of Football 53 Tim Pawlowski and Marcel Fahrner Fighting Corruption in International Sports 61 Wolfgang Maennig Football-Related Violence and the Impact of Political Conflicts 71 Ramón Spaaij International Football Migration and Africa: Feet Drain or Feet Exchange 75 Paul Darby The World Cup in South Africa: Impact and Consequences 83 Eddie Cottle World Cup 2022—Qatar’s Political Strategy Put to the Test 91 Peter Sendrowicz Soccer and Society in Brazil 99 Mauricio Murad Reflections around 2014 FIFA Football World Cup in Brazil 105 Airton Saboya Valente Junior and Joan Noguera-Tur Preface “Sport has the power to change the world.” Nelson Mandela once said these words when talking about the power and political significance of sports and the relevance of sports in politics. From antiquity to moder- nity and beyond, competitive physical engagement has continued to captivate the hearts and minds of individuals as well as entire nations. The relationship between sports and politics is one of the most enduring and per- vasive examples of society’s impact on sports. Although the adage says that sports and politics don’t mix, sports have become more than just games. In this era of glo- balization, sports have crossed many spheres and have become an important part of international politics and diplomacy. Sports and politics are intricately intertwined. Politics often manifests itself through sports, and sports have often been used as po- litical propaganda. Sports and sporting events have always served a wide variety of political purposes, ranging from a supposed symbol for peace to a staging ground for rivalries at the local, regional, national and international levels. Sports have often been an outlet for expressing political views, settling scores and renewing bonds. World events, such as the Olympics, World Cups and international tournaments, are among the biggest forums for global politics. Mega sports events are viewed as effective resources by countries seeking to enhance their role and influence in international affairs. Hosting a major sporting event or the success of a bid to host a mega sports event is seen as an important indicator of the success of the nation state in the international arena. Sports have often been used as a cultural and diplomatic tool to achieve targeted goals. The 2008 Beijing Olympics, the 2010 Football World Cup in South Africa, and the forthcoming 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games in Brazil exemplify this. For Brazil, the hosting of the World Cup is an important part of its long- term strategy for enhancing its soft power, prestige and visibility in the global arena. With the 2014 World Cup around the corner, we have dedicated this issue of our journal to analysing the relationship between sports and politics. The papers explore the political, economic and global significance of sports in international politics and diplomacy. The question we try to answer through these papers is not whether or not there exists a direct relationship between sports and politics, but how this relationship manifests itself in different contexts. The journal will focus on the impact of differ- ent sports events in various regions. The history of many countries’ relationship with Preface 7 football and the inter-connectedness with politics, nationalism, and racial identity pro- vide an interesting perspective on the interrelationship between sports and politics. Dr. Wilhelm Hofmeister Regional Director More than a Game—Sports, Society and Politics 8 Dangerous Liaisons? Sport, Politics, Economics and Events John Nauright Historically, modern sport has been deeply embedded in British sporting ideology, sug- gesting that sport is an activity of diversion from the day-to-day concerns of ordinary life – an escape from the “real” world. Yet, sport as an important social and economic activity has a long and well-established history. The role of sport in modern societies has not surprisingly led to political intervention by governments as well as to much political gamesmanship and indeed corruption within sporting organisations and from those seeking to profit from associations with sport. Belying the myth of autonomy has been the direct instrumental use of sport by governments across the ideological spectrum since at least the early 1900s (Beck, 1999; Keys, 2006; Santos, 2014). Governments have for many decades supported physical education and sport as means to foster healthy economic workforces in times of peace and a militarily prepared populace for times of war. In addition, sport has been a site whereby important socialisation takes place and where leadership and teamwork are inculcated. Sports, having achieved wide popularity in every nation, have the possibility of promoting resistance and individual and social transformation. They have, however, become more and more enmeshed in a global system based on growth and inequality, at the expense of sustainability and social and economic justice. Governments have sought to gain political advantages both internationally and domestically through the use of sport. Governments are acutely aware that tourism and sports are integral parts of the global economy. With large-scale events being key factors in local and national development strategies, traditional sports fans, local communities and democratic prac- tices are often ignored as growth is promoted and business and government interests aligned in support of economies driven by events (Giampiccoli and Nauright, 2010). In general, events such as the Olympic Games, the Commonwealth Games, the FIFA or Rugby World Cups and Continental Championships in football have gained greater significance due, in large part, to an expansion of global media markets, new Dangerous Liaisons? Sport, Politics, Economics and Events technologies enabling greater exposure to be achieved, and the profits generated by the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, which began the move towards the notion of mega-events as potential economic drivers (cf. Boykoff, 2014; Roche, 2002; Lenskyj, 9 2008; Sage, 2010).1 As a result, many countries began to link their economic develop- ment strategies to the attraction of major international sporting events that they hoped could leverage exposure into an increase in tourism income and outside business in- vestment while encouraging the rapid development of supporting infrastructure that could be used more widely post-event (Nauright, 2004). Therefore, even though mega- sporting events are vulnerable to imprecise impact studies and much ambiguity exists with the meaning of the concept of “legacy,” it is a reality that a continually growing number of cities and nations compete to host large-scale events (Cornelissen, 2007; Pernicky and Lueck, 2013). Governments are often keen advocates for promoting the positive impact that these events have, not only on a country’s economy, but also on its developmental legacy. While political factors form the power behind the willingness to host mega-events, the hosting itself, beside the usually advertised economic and “image” impacts, can have a variety of social consequences. Examples of social costs that impact local day-to-day life include: traffic congestion and overcrowding of roads; increased potential for crim- inal activity; disruption to daily schedules; and increased pollution. Protests in Rio de Janeiro in June 2013 brought these into sharp relief for a global audience, though such opposition is normally held at bay through draconian legislation and the militarization of public