SPORT IN THE EUROPEAN UNION FROM A CYPRIOT PERSPECTIVE ANTONIS ALEXOPOULOS Semmelweis University of Budapest Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences (TF) Doctoral School No 5 Supervisor: Foldesine Dr. Szabo Gyongyi egyetemi tanar, DSc Reviewers: Dr. Nadori Laszlo professor emeritus, DSc Dr. Jerzy Kosiewicz egyetemi tanar, DSc Scientific Committee: Dr. Sipos Kornel egyetemi tanar, CSc Dr. Tibori Timea tudományos igazgato, CSc Dr. Hedi Csaba fotitkar, PhD BUDAPEST 2007 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1.1. The problem…………………………………………………………………..6 1.2. Significance of the Problem…………………………………………………..8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1. The bureaucratization of modern sport……………………………………….10 2.2. The relationship between Sport, Law and Policy 2.2.1. Sport and Law………………………………………………………12 2.2.2. Sport and Public Policy……………………………………………..13 2.3. Sport Policy with the European Union 2.3.1. The emergence of a policy for sport in the EU……………………..14 2.3.2. The sport policy of the European Union…………………………....16 2.3.3. The sport policy of the Council of Europe……………………….....23 2.4. The impact of the European Sport Policy on national sport……………….....27 2.5. Endeavors of Cypriot Sport in the European Union process………………....31 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE 3.1. Public opinion about the European Union in Cyprus………………………...38 3.2. Cypriot citizens, sport and sport in the context of the European Union……...41 3.3. Knowledge and opinions of European Sport Actors……………………….....43 OBJECTIVES 4.1 Research Aims………………………………………………………………...46 2 4.2. Research Questions……………………………………………………….......47 4.3. Hypotheses…………………………………………………………………....47 4.4. Delimitations……………………………………………………………….....48 METHODS 5.1. Survey Method 5.1.1. Population and Sample……………………………………………..49 5.1.2. Data Collection……………………………………………………..51 5.1.3. Procedures…………………………………………………………..53 5.1.4. Treatment of Data…………………………………………………..54 5.2. Documentary analysis and in-depth interviews................................................55 RESULTS 6.1. Demographic characteristics that differentiate Cypriot sport actors in their opinion about Cyprus’ membership in the EU…………………………………....57 6.2. Demographic characteristics of Cypriot sport actors and knowledge about the European Sport Policy………………………………………………………….....62 6.2.1. Football players’ knowledge about the European Sport Policy….....83 6.3. Cypriot sport actors’ opinion about Cyprus’ EU integration in connection with their opinion about the impact of the EU integration on Cypriot sport……...........85 6.4. Cypriot sport actors’ opinion about Cyprus’ EU integration in connection with their expectations from the EU in the context of Cypriot sport……………...........85 6.5. Cypriot sport actors’ knowledge about the European sport policy in connection with their opinion about the impact of Cyprus’ EU integration on Cypriot sport…………………………………………………………………….................86 3 6.6. Cypriot sport actors’ knowledge about the European sport policy in connection with their expectations from the EU in the context of Cypriot sport......................86 6.7. Cypriot sport actors’ opinion on how Cyprus’ EU integration may influence their personal careers……………………………………………………………..87 6.8. Cypriot sport actors’ knowledge about the EU sport policy in relation with their personal career expectations as EU citizens………………………………...........89 6.8.1. Football players’ knowledge about the EU sport policy in relation to their personal career expectations as EU citizens………………………..89 DISCUSSION 7.1. The opinion of the Cypriot sport actors about Cyprus’ integration in the EuropeanUnion…………………………………………………………………..91 7.2. The knowledge of the Cypriot sport actors about the EU sport policy……...97 7.3. The opinion of the Cypriot sport actors about the impact of Cyprus’ EU integration on Cypriot sport……………………………………………………..105 7.4. The Cypriot sport actors’ expectations from the EU in the context of Cypriot sport……………………………………………………………………………..106 7.5. The Cypriot sport actors’ personal career expectations as EU citizens…….107 CONCLUSSIONS……………………………………………………………………....112 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….…117 APPENDIX A The national report of Cyprus concerning the “Compliance with Commitments” project…………………………………………………………………………..123 4 APPENDIX B The four questionnaires used for the data collection 1. The questionnaire of the Primary Education teachers…………….....134 2. The questionnaire of the Physical Education teachers………………143 3. The questionnaire of the Cypriot football players…………………...151 4. The questionnaire of the university sport students…………………..159 APPENDIX C The coded variables sheet………………………………………………………166 APPENDIX D Results related with Cypriot sport actors’ opinion about the impact of the EU integration on their professional career………………………….......................................................180 5 INTRODUCTION 1.1. The Problem Sport is proven to be a social phenomenon with great magnitude in the member-states of the European Union. The special Eurobarometer, titled “The European citizens and Sport” of 2004, has revealed that almost the 38% of the citizens of the 25 countries of the European Union are involved in sports at least once a week. More than 80 million people take part in sport activities in around 700 000 sport clubs throughout Europe. An even greater number encounter sport in the form of attendance to sport events or as media consumers of sport. As a part of society and culture, sport is of a special importance as an element that brings people together. This attribute has resulted in cooperation through sport between European countries long before political decisions for European integration were taken. On the other hand, the European Union’s interest and involvement in sport can be defined by the following rationales: sport as trade and part of economy (, sport as a tool to combat social exclusion and to promote social integration, sport as a tool for international relationships, sport as educational tool and sport as an ideological tool to promote a European identity (Merkel, 2005). The recent interest of the European Union on one hand and the relevance of sport in the European Union on the other have led to the formation of a system of European organizations in sport. The system is marked by complexity, as referring to the institutions that compose it. Several governmental organizations, non- governmental organizations and organizations at a mixed level are forming what represents “European Sports” in terms of institutions (Tokarski et al, 2004). Each organization has different involvement in the “European Sports system”, according to each organization’s nature, competency, responsibility and goals. In turn, the actions within the “European Sports system” organize, promote and develop sport in a pan-European level. Nevertheless, there is no formal legal basis for the European Union’s direct commitment in sport. Up to the Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty on European Union, sport had 6 never before been mentioned in any of the treaties. The EU has not had any direct interest and competence in this sector until the Protocol Annexed to the Treaty on European Union was published. In this aspect, the sport policy of the European Union has two distinct forms. On the one hand, there is the indirect sport policy which includes all measures and regulations that although were initiated with more general goals, they eventually have an impact on sport because of their higher importance. This happens in the cases when sport, in manifestations like an economic factor, an employer, media factor or as part of education, falls into the European Union’s legal jurisdiction. The direct sports policy of the European Union can only be mentioned in a narrow sense, where the representatives of the community, namely the Commission as the executive organ, have intentionally taken relevant measures aimed at having an impact on sport or vice versa using sports to have a relevant impact on the European Union (Tokarski et al, 2004). In terms of sport policy within Europe, reference can only be made to the significant and long-running work of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe has dealt extensively over the last three decades with sport, in order to locate problems and deficits, formulating relevant demands for sport, providing a forum through which issues in sport can be solved through cooperation between its member-countries and especially coordinating national sport policies at level of governments. Although Cyprus became a member of the European Union on May 1st 2004, its European orientation in sport was initiated more than thirty years before. As early as 1974, the Cyprus Sport Organization (CSO) followed the sporting matters of Europe and especially the sport policy of the Council of Europe, by adopting the decisions of the European Conventions and the agreed resolutions of the various Ministerial Conferences of the European Ministers responsible for Sport (Araouzos, 1994). Almost a decade later the same core policy was stated in the relevant documents of the Cyprus Sport Organization, showing that there was direct on lasting commitment of the Organization towards Europe (Alexopoulos, 2005). As a part of the sport-political hierarchy, policy decisions are taken by the sport politicians who also constitute the upper rank of the sport-political life. Naturally, the feelings and 7 opinions of the people involved in sport are, in many cases, not considered, especially if there is a lack of research to serve as a mediator between the people implicated in