Religious Peacebuilders: The Role of Religion in Peacebuilding in Conflict-Torn Society in Southeast Asia Raja Juli Antoni A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2014 School of Political Science and International Studies Abstract Scholars and practitioners of International Relations and Peace and Conflict Resolution Studies tend to ignore religion in their analyses due to the considerable influence of the secularist paradigm within these fields. Religion tends to be perceived as a cause of violent conflict, and hence as a phenomenon that must be relegated to the private sphere. However, against these more conventional approaches, some scholars and practitioners have begun to approach religion as a factor that can potentially shape peace and security in positive ways. Within this context, the aim of this thesis is to investigate, as its core question, how Muslims and Christians use religious resources to contribute to peacebuilding in conflict-torn societies in Southeast Asia. To answer the research question, the notions of the ambivalence of the sacred (AoS) and the hermeneutics of peace (HoP) are employed as theoretical frames for moving beyond both the core assumptions of the secularist paradigm and analysing local dynamics in the field. These local dynamics are accessed through a qualitative case study methodology with particular reference to the conflicts in Maluku (Indonesia) and Mindanao (the Philippines). This thesis includes the argument that religion is a resource for peacebuilding through the complex process of the HoP: the process of rereading sacred texts, religious doctrines, and narratives in order to create new, inclusive, and peaceful religious meanings and practices to overcome violent conflicts. The evidence obtained through fieldwork amply demonstrated that religion played pivotal roles in peacebuilding in the two cases that were considered. The HoP process led religious peacebuilders in Maluku and Mindanao to perceive religiously grounded peacebuilding as more than simply another tactic to resolve conflict. Rather, peacebuilders in these conflicts became deeply committed to attain peace because for them peacebuilding was a religious conviction, a sacred duty, and a vocation that deserves reward and redemption. Furthermore, this thesis found that religion could not always be cast as violent, dogmatic, rigid, and inflexible, as the secular perspective has often prescribed. Religion, in fact, inspired and motivated religious adherents to contribute to peacebuilding fluidly, flexibly, and dynamically at local, national, and international levels. Religious peacebuilders worked through official and unofficial religious structures, but they also worked with and drew upon diverse and pluralistic resources of the society, including feminism, nationalism, customary tradition, and the approaches of contemporary civil society organisations. Thus, this thesis demonstrates how religion positively influences peacebuilding in conflict-torn societies in Southeast Asia. i Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Queensland, immediately made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. ii Publications during candidature Antoni, Raja. "Religion and Peace-Building." In Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jesudas Athyal. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, forthcoming. ———. "Muhammadiyah." In Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jesudas Athyal. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, forthcoming. Publications included in this thesis No publications included Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None iii Acknowledgements I must be honest with myself. I would never have completed this thesis without the help and support from numerous people and institutions. To you I owe my gratitude. First and foremost, my gratitude goes to my supervisory team: Dr. Morgan Brigg, Dr. Volker Boege, and Dr. Anne Brown. Morgan, my principle supervisor, tirelessly gave me productive advice throughout my candidature. He was a persistent and patient supervisor who provided extremely detailed feedback of, perhaps, hundreds of drafts that I sent to him. I feel deeply indebted to you, Morgan. I must thank Volker, my first associate supervisor, who also gave valuable feedback to improve my academic writing. As non-English native speaker, Volker understood my problem of writing in English. He always gave me strong encouragement that I could overcome the problem. I also must thank Anne, my second associate supervisor. From the beginning of my candidature, Anne already told me that she would be extremely busy in the coming years. However, her feedback on the second full draft of the thesis was incredibly important in improving this thesis. Thank you so much, Anne! My gratitude also goes to Barbara Sullivan, Director of RHD Program in the School. Barbara was most supportive throughout my study at the School. Particularly, she spent time to be my academic reader when I attended my confirmation of candidature seminar. To the administrative staff in the school, especially Vanessa and Jason, thank very much for your generous support. I express my sincere gratitude to friends at School of Political Science and International Studies who has been pursuing the same academic trajectory with me. To name some of them: Aime Saba, Vickie Frater, Constance Duncombe, Angela Setterlund, Kazi Rahman, Leah Aylward, Jane Nolan, David Burgener, Willem Van Rensburg, Ky Son Nguyen, and Hai Thiam Bui, Joseph Hongoh, Katie Linnane and George Karavas, Nilanjana Premaratna, Daryl Morini, and others. Thanks for your help and friendship. I must also thank to Annie Pohlman and Lee Wilson for your help to read some part of my thesis. In addition, thanks to Emanuele Gelsi for your help in editing this thesis. I would not have been able to pursue a PhD without the generous funding from the Australian government through the Australian Development Scholarship (ADS). Many thanks to the ADS staff in Jakarta and Brisbane for their continuous support for the last four years. I must also thank to the Graduate School, which provided additional scholarship funds, and the Graduate School International Travel Award (GSITA), which I used for fieldwork in Maluku and Mindanao. I am also thankful for the UQ International scholarship that provided me with tuition fees for the last three months of my study. iv Living in a foreign country became easier for my family and me because of the presence of Indonesian community organisations in Brisbane, especially the Khataman Group and the UQ Indonesian Students Association. I also thank those associations, which made us feel at home, while living in Brisbane. In Indonesia, I convey my sincere gratitude to friends and seniors at the MAARIF Institute (Buya Syafi’i Maarif, Bang Jeffrie, Bang Rizal, Fajar, Fuad, Heni, and Darraz), to Kompas (Pak Jacob, Pak Larto, Bang Rikard, and Mba Maria), CSIS (Bu Clara and Pak Sofjan, and Pak Jusuf), and to the late Pak Taufiq Kiemas, Bikkhu Pannavaro, Pak Teddy P. Rachmat, Pak Sudhamek AWK. In Maluku, particularly, I thank Bang Jacky, Bang Abi, and my “research assistant” Anshori. Because of your generous assistance, my intensive fieldwork in Maluku ran extremely well. In the Philippines, I express my deep gratitude to Amina Rasul (PCID) for introducing me to various people and institutions in Manila and Mindanao. Special thanks go to Yudi and family, who generously provided accommodation in my first days in Manila and to the staff of the Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo De Manila University, where I became a Visiting Research Associate during my fieldwork in the Philippines. In Mindanao, I particularly thank the Silsilah (Fr. D’Ambra, Ate Minda, and Jovie) for your warm welcome to a new researcher like me. Exploring a conflict zone like Mindanao would have been extremely difficult without the help that I received from Jong D’Baleno and Nasser Gayagay, who accompanied me to remote areas in Mindanao to interview my respondents. Thanks, Jong and Nasir! My gratitude goes to my family in Bekasi and Pekanbaru: thanks for your unceasing support and prayers. Last, but not least, to my wife, Laili Kinanggi, thanks very much for your love, patience, and encouragement. Without you, I do not think that I could have finished this thesis. To my three lovely daughters: one day you might understand why I often disappeared from home, while I should have spent our valuable time together.