A Cross-CulturalOutline of Education 22. Knowledge as value I. On whatdoes the educational processfocus? 23. The "beautifulperson" 1. Environment(other than human) 24. Privateproperty 1. Flora 25. Democracy 2. Fauna 26. Family 3. Climate 27. Responsibility 4. Geographical features 28. Generosity,doing more than required, non- 5. Anthropomorphizedflora commercialism 6. Anthropomorphizedfauna 29. The state 7. Anthropomorphizedor zoomorphized ma- 30. Deference chines 31. Enlightenedself-interest 8. Anthropomorphizedor zoomorphizednatural 32. Independence, toughness phenomena other than flora or fauna 33. Physicalintactness (winds,rivers, mountains, etc.) 34. Sense of emergency 9. Space 35. Constancy 10. Time 36. Solicitudefor others, kindness 11. Motion 37. Composureunder stress 12. Space-time-motion 38. Courage 13. The world view of the culture 39. Knowledgeas means to an end 1. Isolate-static 40. Compromise 2. Communicate-changing 41. Fun, relaxation 1. Engulfing 42. Friends,friendship, faithfulness 3. Hostile or pacific 43. Fairness 1. Hostile 44. Flattery,empty praise 2. Pacific 45. Honor (integrity),personal autonomy 3. Selectivelyhostile or pacific 46. Self-restraint 4. Geographicalposition-of places studied 47. Tryinghard, don't give up 1. Near: own town, state or province, 48. Fame, ambition village,tribe 49. Honesty 2. Near-distant:other statesor provinces, 50. Prestige nation in general; other villages 51. Niceness,likeableness or tribes 52. Respect forauthority 3. Distant: otherlands 53. Excitement 5. Temporal position 54. Gentleness,non-violence 1. Immediate 55. Speed, alertness 2. Contemporary 56. Sacredness,etc., of parents 3. Near past 57. Flexibility 4. Distantpast 58. Modesty 5. Mythologicalpast 59. Tolerance 14. Clothing 60. Freedom 15. Food 61. Peace 16. Transportationand communication 62. Progress 2a. Values 63. Wealth 1. Good and bad: moral rules 64. U.S.A. 2. Work,success, failure 65. Loyalty 3. Being on time 66. Money,greed, etc., are corrupting 4. Culture 67. Smartness,cleverness, thinking 5. Proper dress 68. Profit 6. Strength,activity, power 69. Size 7. Beating thegame 2b. Value conflict 8. Politeness,tact 3. Institutions 9. Cooperation,helpfulness, togetherness 1. Social structure 10. Patriotism 2. Religion orderliness 11. Cleanliness, 3. Economicsystem 12. Thrift,saving, don't waste 4. Technology,machines 13. Parentsare good 14. Prettiness,beauty 5. Reading, writing,and arithmetic 15. Love 6. Social manipulation 16. Mother,motherhood 1. Recognition-seekingbehavior 17. Happiness 2. Manipulation of others 18. Competitiveness 3. Manipulation of self 19. Equality 7. Responsibility 20. Novelty,excitement 8. How to compete 21. Pride 9. How to take care of others Vol. 1 *No. 4 *July 1960 269 This content downloaded from 206.87.196.2 on Mon, 16 Jun 2014 15:15:32 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 10. Use of the mind 11. By experiment 1. How to think 1. By teacher 2. Disjunction 2. By pupil 1. When to disjoin 12. By doing 2. How to disjoin 13. By symbolicassociation 3. Fromwhat to disjoin 14. By dramatization 3. Concentration 15. By gamesor otherplay 1. Intereststimulation defining purpose; moti- 16a. By threats vation 16b. By trials 2. Force 17. By irrelevantassociation 3. Shuttingout externalstimuli 18. By relevantassociation 4. Visualization 19. Through art 5. Focused retention 1. Graphic 4. Preparationof the mind 2. Music, general 5. "Mental discipline" 3. Songs 11. Body partsor functions 4. Literature(stories, myths, tales, etc.) 1. The voice 20. By statingthe opposite of the truth ("Water's a 2. The sphincters solid, isn't it?"); writingantonyms 3. Care of the body (like gettingenough rest) 21. By holdingup adult ideals 4. Posture 22. Actingin undifferentiatedunison 5. How to relax 23. Physicalforce 6. The mouth 24. By positiveor negativeassertion 12. Art 25. Repetition 13. History 26. By specifically relating information to the 14. Some other facts about which informationis child's own body, bodily function,or ex- communicated perience 1. About systemsof rewardsand punishments 27a. Through ego-inflation 2. About what the culture promisesits members 27b. Through ego-deflation 3. About permittedand forbiddenactivities 28. Through use of humor 4. About how to get pleasure and avoid pain 29. By telling 5. About whomto love and whomto hate 30. By watching 6. How to handle frustration 31. By listening 7. The differencebetween the real and the mani- 32. Question and answer fest (this refersto situationsin which an 1. Teacher question, pupil answer effortis deliberatelymade to enable the 2. Pupil question,teacher answer child to see "behind" the obvious) 33. Holding up class, ethnic, national, or religious 8. About death ideals 9. About sex relations 34. By doing somethingon his own 10. About race, class,or ethnicdifferences 35a. By repeatingthe child's errorto him 15a. Instructionin identifiableadult tasks 35b. By repeatingthe child's correctanswer 15b. Teaching about adult tasks 36. By accusing 16. Scientificabstractions 37. By followinga model 17. Science (general) 1. Human 18. Routine procedures 2. Non-human 19. Childish handiwork 38. By comparison 20. Cultural stereotypes 39. By fillingin a missingpart 21. Warfareand associatedactivities 40. By associative naming (e.g., a book mentions 22. Safety gingham as a material, and teacher asks 23. Songs,music studentsif theycan name othermaterials) 24. Mythology 41. By identifyingan object (like going to the 25. The object system board and underlining "a noun" in a sen- 26. Games tence) 27. Culturalfictions 42a. By group discussion 42b. By class discussion II. How is the information communicated (teaching 43. Physicalmanipulation methods)? 1. Bodilymanipulation 1. By imitation 2. Bodily mutilation and other physical stresses 44. Rote memory 2. By settingan example 45. By working togetherwith a student (as when 3. By instructionin schools, ceremonials,or other teacher and studentwork togetherto make formalinstitutions a battery,or as when teacherand studentgo 4. By use of punishments over referencebooks together) 5. By use of rewards 46. Through special exhibits 6. Problem-solving 47. By having children read substantivematerials 7. Guided recall (e.g., reading the chemistrylesson in the 8. Giving the child tasks to performbeyond his reader) immediatecapacity 48. By putting the child on his mettle ("Now let's 1. Jammingthe machine see how well you can read.") 9. Mechanical devices 49. Through group projects 10. By kinestheticassociation 50. By givingprocedural instructions 270 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY This content downloaded from 206.87.196.2 on Mon, 16 Jun 2014 15:15:32 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 51. By demandingproof Henry: OUTLINE OF EDUCATION 52. Throughreports by students 53. By pairing (e.g., one child gives a word and 19. Attentively calls on another child to give a sentence 20. Spontaneouslyhumorous with the word; one child gives the state 21. Spontaneouslyexpressive and anothergives the capital) 22. Approaches teacherphysically 54. By askingfor volunteers 23. Mobile-free 55. Through isolatingthe subject 24. Immobile-constricted 25. Through performingspecial assigned tasks III. Who educates? 26a. Hostile to peers 1. Males or females? 26b. Protectiveof peers 2. Relatives or others? 27. Diversion to peers 3. On which age group does the burden of educa- 28. Anxiously tion fall? 29. Disjoined hand-raising 1. Peers 30. By whisperingto teacher 1. Boy 31. Laughs at peers 2. Girl 32. Correctsteacher 2. Older children 33a. Disruptively 1. Male 33b. Critically 2. Female 34. By carpingcriticism 3. Adolescents 35. By praisingwork of peers 1. Male 36. Dishonesty,cheating, lying, etc. 2. Female 37. Attemptsto maintain order 4. Adults 38. Guiltily 1. Male or female 39. With sense of inadequacy 2. Younger or older 40. With sense of adequacy 3. Married or unmarried 41. By copyingfrom peers 5. Others 42. Attemptsto controlthe class 4. Is education by "successful"people? 43. No response 5. What rewardsaccrue to the educator? 44. Uses teacher'slast name 1. Enhanced status 45. Uses teacher'sfirst name 2. Material rewards 46. Calls out to teacher 3. Emotional satisfactions 47. Uses kinshipterm 6. Are thereeducation specialists? 48. By public performance 7. Does the educatorwear distinctivedress or other insignia? V. How does the educator participate? (What is his 8. Is the educator of the same or of a different attitude?) social group from that of the person being 1. Eagerly educated?(national, racial, class,etc.) 1. Facial expression 2. Bodilymovement IV. How does the person being educated participate? 3. Tone of voice (What is his attitude?) 4. Heightenedbodily tonus 1. Accepting 2. Bored,uninterested, etc. 2. Rejecting,resistive 3. Embarrassed 3. Bored, indifferent 4a. Dominative 4. Defiant 4b. Integrative 5. Inattentive 5. Insecure 6. Social closenessof teacherand child 6. Politely 7. Social distance of teacherand child 7. Enjoys correctresponse 8. Finds the processpainful? 8. Resentsincorrect response 9. Finds the processgratifying? 9. Can't tell I Oa. Competitively 10b. Cooperatively 10. Seeks physical contact with person being edu- lla. With inappropriatelaughter cated llb. Ridiculing peers 11. Acceptanceof blame 12. Laughterat humorof peersor teacher 12. Puttingdecisions up to the children 13. Overtdocility 13. Discouraging 14. Eagerly 14. Encouraging 1. Facial expression 15. Hostile,ridiculing, sarcastic, belittling 2. Hand-raising 16. Relativelymobile 3. Talking out 17. Relativelyimmobile 4. Heightenedbodily tonus 18. Personalizing