Folia Historiae Artium Seria Nowa, t. 15: 2017 / PL ISSN 0071-6723 PIOTR KRASNY Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Instytut Historii Sztuki EXEMPLA VIVA. THE PRELATES OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AS INSPIRERS OF CHARLES BORROMEO’S INSTRUCTIONS ON SHAPING SACRED ART The decree on the cult of images promulgated by the in order that the, rather general, directives of the Coun- Council of Trent on 3 December 1563, which assigned to cil of Trent could be put into practice on a large scale, the clergy a particular responsibility for ensuring ‘that they would require a detailed elaboration in writings on there [in the church decoration] be nothing seen that art theory and in instructions issued by the Church hier- is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly ar- archs; additionally, model examples of their implemen- ranged, nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous, see- tation in specific artistic undertakings would have been ing that holiness becometh the house of God’1, was for needed.4 The greatest credit in this regard has been given a long time believed – mainly under the influence of the to Cardinal Charles Borromeo (1538–1584; Fig. 1) who, study of Émile Mâle2 – to be the turning point in the peri- immediately after the council had ended, with zeal set odization of the history of religious art of the early mod- about to implementing its promulgations in the Archdio- ern period. cese of Milan he was in charge of, thus fashioning himself Yet, the conventional character of this date was noted consciously and very consistently as the paragon of put- already long ago by researchers who, on the one hand, re- ting the Tridentine reforms into practice within the lo- alised that a vigorous discussion on the role of art in the cal Church. He enthusiastically reformed Church law by Roman Catholic Church and its principles had started as organising metropolitan and diocesan synods; he had put early as in the 1520s3, and, on the other hand, declared that in order and consolidated the way that liturgy was cel- ebrated; finally, he instituted numerous perfectly organ- 1 ‘nihil inordinatum, aut praepostere et tumultuarie acccommoda- ised priestly seminaries and regularly carried out canoni- 5 tum, nihil profanum nihilque inhonestum appareat, cum domum cal visitations. He set much store by shaping sacred art Dei deceat sanctitudo’, see The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent, trans. by J. Waterworth, Lon- 4 See in particular A.W.A. Boschloo, Annibale Caracci in Bologna. don, 1848 (available at: <http://www.bible-researcher.com/trent1. Visibile Reality in Art after the Council of Trent, vol. 1, Den Haag, html> [accessed on 20 Oct. 2017]). 1974, p. 144; S. Kummer, ‘”Doceant Episcopi”. Auswirkungen des 2 E. Mâle, L’Art religieux de la fin du XVIe siècle, du XVIIe siècle et Trenter Bilderdekrets im römischen Kirchenraum’, Zeitschrift du XVIIIe siècle: étude sur l’iconographie après le Concile de Trente. für Kunstgeschichte, 56, 1993, no. 4, pp. 508–533; J.W. O’Malley, Italie, France, Espagne, Flandres, Paris, 1932. ‘Trent, Sacred Images and the Catholics’ Senses of the Sensuous’, 3 See especially: G. Scavizzi, Arte e architettura sacra. Crona- in The Sensuous in the Counter-Reformation Church, ed. by M.B. che e documenti sulla controversia tra riformati e cattolici (1500– Hall, E. Cooper, Cambridge, 2013, pp. 28–48. –1550), Rome, 1982, pp. 130–273; C. Metzger, ‘Die Reue nach 5 H. Jedin, Il tipo ideale di vescovo secondo la riforma cattolica, dem Sturm. Rekatolisierung durch Rekonstruktion’, in Kunst und trans. by E. Durini, Brescia, 1959, pp. 92–103; R. Mols, ‘Saint Konfession. Katholische Auftragswerke im Zeitalter der Glaubens- Charles Borromée pionier de la pastorale moderne’, Nouvelle Re- spaltung 1517–1563, ed. by A. Tacke, Regensburg, 2008, pp. 267– vue Théologique, 79, 1957, no. 8, pp. 600–622, no. 9, pp. 715–747; 294; A. Nagel, ‘Architecture as Image’, in idem, The Controversy R. Chiacchella, ‘Il tipo ideale di vescovo e l’applicazione del of Renaissance Art, Toronto, 2011, pp. 197–220. modello nelle chiese locali. Carlo Borromeo e la sua influenza Publikacja jest udostępniona na licencji Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 PL). 36 his ecclesiastical province, summoned in 1565 and 15767, and then expounded on them in his extensive work en- titled Instructiones fabrice et supellectilis ecclesiastice, pub- lished in 1577.8 A year later he outlined the matter again, in the brochure Libretto dei ricordi al popolo della città e diocese di Milano, intended for the laity of his diocese.9 Borromeo also had commissioned numerous works of sa- cred art, and – as testified by his secretary and biographer, Gian Pietro Giussano (1548/1552–1623) – considered them to be exemplary solutions to which he referred readers in 7 A. Iodice, ‘Influenze del primo concilio provinciale di Milano (1565) nei primi due concili provinciali di Capua (1566–1577)’, in San Carlo Borromeo in Italia, pp. 144–147 (as in note 5); W. Gó- ralski, Reforma trydencka w diecezji i prowincji kościelnej mediolańskiej w świetle pierwszych synodów kard. Karola Boro- meusza, Lublin, 1988, pp. 351–354. 8 M.L. Gatti Perer, ‘Le “Istruzioni” di San Carlo e l’ispirazione classica nell’architettura religiosa del ’600 in Lombardia’, in Il mito di classicismo nel Seicento, ed. by L. Anceschi, S. Bottari, G. d’Anna, Florence, 1964, pp. 102–123; M.L. Gatti Perer, ‘Prospettive nuove aperte da San Carlo nelle sue norme per l’arte sacra’, Atti della Ac- cademia di San Carlo, 3, 1980, pp. 15–33; I. Grassi, ‘Prassi, socialtà e simbolo dell’architettura nelle “Instructiones” di San Carlo’, Arte Cristiana, 73, 1985, no. 706, pp. 3–16; E.C. Voelker, ‘Borromeo’s Influence on Sacred Art and Architecture’, in San Carlo Borromeo. Catholic Reform, pp. 122–187 (as in note 5); M.A. Crippa, ‘Car- lo Borromeo e l’attuazione della riforma cattolica nell’architettura 1. Charles Borromeo, copper engraving after a portrait attributed to e nell’arte per la liturgia’, in Trento. I tempi del concilio. Società, Ambrogio Figino, before 1602 religione e cultura agli inizi dell’Europa moderna, Milan, 1995, pp. 229–236; M. Vitta, ‘La questione delle immagini nelle In- structiones di San Carlo Borromeo’, in C. Borromeus, Instruc- in the ways that were appropriate to its basic functions, tionum fabricae et supellectilis ecclesiasticae libri II, ed. by S. Della namely, as the physical setting for the spiritual service to Torre, M. Marinelli, Vatican City, 2000, pp. 386–396; R. Sénécal, God, a teaching tool, and a means of stimulating prop- ‘Carlo Borromeo’s Instructiones Fabricae et Supellectilis Eccle- er piety in the faithful.6 He had already introduced these siasticae and Its Origins in Rome of His Time’, Papers of British problems into the decrees of the first and fourth synods of School of Rome, 68, 2000, pp. 241–267; J. Kofroňová, ‘Problema- tika sakrálního prostoru po Tridentském konzilu ve svĕtle názorů nella diocesi di Perugia’, in San Carlo Borromeo in Italia. Studi cirkévnich autorit’, Umĕní, 48, 2000, no. 1–2, pp. 41–54; R. Scho- offerti a Carlo Marcora dottore dell’Ambrosiana, Brindisi, 1978, field, ‘Architettura, dottrina e magnificenza nell’architettura ec- pp. 85–103; G. Alberigo, ‘Carlo Borromeo come modello di ves- clesiastica dell’età di Carlo e Federico Borromeo’, in F. Repishti, covo nella Chiesa post-tridentina’, Rivista Storica Italiana, 79, R. Schofield, Architettura e controriforma. I dibatti per la fac- 1967, pp. 1031–1052; J. Tomaro, ‘San Carlo Borromeo and Imple- ciata del Duomo di Milano 1582–1682, Milan, 2004, pp. 125–249; mentation of the Council of Trent’, in San Carlo Borromeo. Catho- P. Prodi, ‘Ricerche sulla teoria delle arti figurative nella rifor- lic Reform and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Second Half of the Six- ma cattolica’, in idem, Arte e pietà nella Chiesa tridentina, Bolo- teenth Century, ed. by J.M. Headley, J.B. Tamaro, Washington, gna, 2014, pp. 73–86; J. Mara DeSilva, “Piously Made”. Sacred 1988, pp. 67–84. Space and the Transformation of Behaviour’, in The Sacralisation 6 S. Himmelheber, Bischöfliche Kunstpolitik nach dem Triden- of Space and Behavior in Early Modern World. Studies and Sources, tinum. Der Secunda-Roma-Anspruch Carlo Borromeos und die ed. by J. Mara DeSilva, London, 2015, pp. 1–32. mailandischen Verordnungen zu Bau und Ausstattung von Kir- 9 C. Di Filippo Bareggi, ‘Libri e letture di Milano di san Carlo Bor- chen, Munich, 1984; J. Alexander, From Renaissance to Counter- romeo’, in Stampa, libri e letture a Milano nell’età di Carlo Borro- -Reformation. The Architectural Patronage of Carlo Borro meo meo, ed. N. Raponi, A. Turchini, Milan, 1992, pp. 90–95; D. Zar- during the Reign of Pius IV, Milan, 2007; P. Krasny, ‘Święty din, ‘La “perfezione” nel proprio “stato”: strategie per la riforma Karol Boromeusz a sztuka’, in Święty Karol Boromeusz a sztu- generale dei costumi nel modello borromaico di governo’, idem, ka w Kościele powszechnym, w Polsce, w Niepołomicach, ed. by Carlo Borromeo. Cultura, santità, governo, Milan, 2010, pp. 113– P. Krasny, M. Kurzej, Cracow, 2013, pp. 11–27. –122. 37 his writings.10 A carefully thought out and very consistent EXEMPLA VIVA FOR A BISHOP – course of actions taken by Borromeo to develop a com- REFORMER OF THE LOCAL CHURCH prehensive model of bishopric patronage of the arts re- sulted in the fact that adherence to his theoretical con- A severe crisis of the Church had been diagnosed very cepts and imitation of the practical solutions proposed perceptively by the learned Camaldolese monks from Ve- by him have been regarded as the key elements of post- nice, Paolo Giustiniani (1476–1528) and Pietro Querini -Tridentine art of the Roman Catholic Church.11 (1478–1514), who, in 1513, compiled a memorial to Pope While totally in agreement with such an approach, Leo X (Giovanni di Lorenzo de’ Medici, 1475–1521) in Borromeo’s achievements, in my opinion, should also which they appealed for a radical reform of the institu- be confronted with actions undertaken by the precur- tion and presented a fairly comprehensive programme 14 sors of the Tridentine ‘reform’ of the arts, and an attempt thereof.