Participation in Sustainable Tourism Development: Stakeholders & Partnership Working This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy James A. Maiden School of City and Regional Planning Cardiff University March 2008 / UMI Number: U584263 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U584263 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Abstract In order to achieve more sustainable development, many are advocating the crucial role of involving a comprehensive range of stakeholders in all stages of the development process, from policy making to project implementation. Following the sustainable development literature, it is believed that tourism will also achieve greater levels of sustainability if all stakeholders participate in its development. As the interest in stakeholders has grown, so too have partnerships become popular vehicles for the delivery of strategic goals, such that other more dynamic, less resource intensive forms of stakeholder participation may be overlooked. Given the widespread interest in stakeholders, it might be anticipated that there would be a well-developed theory of stakeholding. While there is a stakeholder theory, which some tourism researchers have previously used, its current value is questioned here and a number of other organisational theories are therefore considered in an attempt to develop a more comprehensive framework for analysing stakeholding in practice. By also reflecting on collaboration, network and structuration theories, a fuller understanding of the complex range of issues is enabled. Tourism in Wales is investigated here, which provides an interesting case study as it has recently undergone a restructuring process that attempted to increase coordination between and involvement of stakeholders. There is also a policy commitment, driven by the National Assembly for Wales, for increased partnership working between organisations. Policy and strategy documents from key organisations were analysed for their commitment to stakeholder involvement and a comprehensive range of stakeholder groups was interviewed. The study explores who the stakeholders are, the kind of mechanisms and processes employed to ensure that views are heard, and the effects of doing so in terms of benefits and problems. The network and coordination structures that underlie all communications are also key considerations. Analysis is undertaken at two different levels — a national and regional level of organisational coordination, as well as a local level case study of a scheme involving diverse stakeholder groups. How the different levels interact and the associated issues are also considered. It is concluded that while there are some positive structural moves, there are also some embedded social constraints that mean more effective forms of stakeholder participation are not yet fully operationalised. The top-down focus on partnership working has meant that while some more well-resourced organisations and individuals have enjoyed more privileged access to decision-making processes, more ‘grass-roots’ stakeholders’ opportunities to participate have not greatly increased. The evident enthusiasm for partnership working and stakeholder involvement must therefore be carefully nurtured to ensure success. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Terry Marsden, for his advice and encouragement throughout my time as a PhD student. Particular acknowledgement also needs to be given to the dedicated support of my panel members, Dr Andrew Flynn and Dr Gillian Bristow. Thank you to my wife and family for their much needed support, in all its forms, throughout this long process. Thank you also to my friends who have been there to talk to about the work and also to take my mind off it as necessary. Contents Abstract i Acknowledgements ii Contents iii List o f Figures vii Chapter 1 Understanding the Role of Stakeholder Participation in the Sustainable Tourism Development Process 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Research Context 2 1.3 Research Questions 5 1.4 Thesis Structure 5 1.5 Key Definitions 6 Chapter 2 Sustainable Tourism, Stakeholder Participation and Partnership 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Sustainable Development 9 2.2.1 Development 9 2.2.2 A word about ‘sustainability’ 10 2.2.3 The birth of a concept 10 2.2.4 Current sustainable development thinking 14 2.3 Sustainable Tourism lo 2.3.1 Sustainable tourism principles and guidelines 22 2.4 Linking Stakeholder Participation and Sustainable Tourism Development 24 2.4.1 Stakeholder collaboration in tourism partnerships 26 2.5 Partnerships and the National Assembly for Wales 31 2.6 Conclusions 33 . Chapter 3 Organisational Theories for Understanding the Role of Stakeholder Participation 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 The Emergence of Stakeholding 38 3.3 Stakeholder Theory: an organisational ethics perspective 39 3.3.1 Distinctions 41 3.3.2 Stakeholder identity and legitimacy 45 iii 3.3.3 Moving beyond dyadic ties 49 3.4 Stakeholding: a political economy perspective 50 3.5 If Ever the Twain Shall Meet: management versus political perspectives 53 3.6 The Application of Stakeholding Concepts in Tourism Research 55 3.7 Collaboration Theory 61 3.7.1 Applications of collaboration theory in tourism research 63 - 3.8 Network Theory 68 3.8.1 Applications of network theory in tourism research 69 3.9 Structuration Theory of Interorganisational Coordination 72 3.10 Governance and Multi-level Governance 78 3.10.1 The application of the governance framework in tourism research 82 3.11 Conclusions 83 Chapter 4 Operationalising Stakeholder Participation: A Conceptual and Methodological Approach 4.1 Introduction 88 4.2 Identification of Issues and Questions Raised Through Literature Review 88 4.3 Bringing a Stakeholder Based Theoretical Approach to Sustainable Tourism Development 91 4.4 Research Questions 95 4.5 Justification for Using Tourism in Wales as a Case Study 98 4.6 A Multi-layered Methodology for Investigating the Complex Participation Process 100 4.6.1 Extensive research — national and regional levels 102 4.6.1.1 Documentary analysis 102 4.6.1.2 Semi-structured interviews 105 4.6.2 Intensive research — local level 108 4.6.2.1 Selection of local case study 109 4.6.2.2 Observation 110 4.6.2.3 Interviews and survey 111 4.7 An Integrated Approach to Data Analysis 113 Chapter 5 Tourism in Wales: Crisis, Institutional Design and Policy Making for a Diffuse and Complex, Multi-sectoral and Multi-level Industry 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 Contextual information 116 5.2.1 Identifying the tourism community 118 iv 5.2.2 Key public sector organisations 121 5.2.3 Key voluntary sector organisations 128 5.2.4 Key private sector organisations 129 5.2.5 Other organisations 122 5.3 Key Policy Factors that Frame Stakeholder Participation 133 5.3.1 Restructuring — the need for change: 1998-2001 133 5.3.1.1 Identification and recognition of the problems: 1998-1999 135 5.3.1.2 A new approach: 2000-2001 138 5.3.2 Policy and strategic planning in the new post-devolution structure: 2002 and beyond 140 5.3.2.1 The new policy terrain: national strategies based on decentralisation and partnership 142 5.3.2.2 Participation in national strategy development: the process of engagement 146 5.3.2.3 Regional tourism strategies 150 5.3.2.4 Local level strategic planning 152 5.3.3 The changing nature of funding arrangements 154 5.4 Conclusions 158 5.4.1 The representation of diverse stakeholder interests 158 5.4.2 The consideration of stakeholder interests 160 5.4.2.1 The impact of policy on stakeholder involvement 160 5.4.2.2 Interdependence highlighted 161 5.4.2.3 Normative basis and ethical foundation 162 5.4.2.4 Stakeholder management 164 Chapter 6 Stakeholder Participation at the National and Regional Levels 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 The Consideration of Stakeholder Interests: basis, benefits, problems 165 6.3 Levels of Stakeholder Participation in the Tourism Development Process 175 6.4 Stakeholder Management 182 6.4.1 National level coordinators 182 6.4.2 Regional Tourism Partnerships: a case study of stakeholder management 186 6.5 Conclusions 194 6.5.1 Basis, benefits and barriers 194 6.5.2 The representation of diverse stakeholder interests 195 v 6.5.3 Stakeholder management 197 Chapter 7 Stakeholding in Practice at the Local Level: the Dyfi Valley Tourism Growth Area 7.1 Introduction 211 . 7.2 The Dyfi Valley Tourism Growth Area 212 7.2.1 The local context 212 7.2.2 Applying for TGA status 221 7.2.3 Delivery of the scheme 224 7.3 Dyfi Valley TGA Steering Group 229 7.4 Analysis of Stakeholder Participation at the Local Level 246 7.4.1 Local stakeholder involvement 246 7.4.2 Barriers and benefits 248 7.4.3 Network connections 250 7.4.4 Developing relationships and values 254 7.4.5 Management of the partnership 256 7.4.6 Power imbalances: decision making, bureaucracy and access to resources 259 7.5 Conclusions 261 Chapter 8 Conclusions: Understanding the Role of Stakeholder Participation in Sustainable Tourism