CONCEPTUALIZING AND QUANTIFYING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS by Keegan McGrath Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia March 2014 © Copyright by Keegan McGrath, 2014 “We have to prepare for what life could become in 40 years. We need to outline what is possible and what is impossible with the non-renewable resources of the Earth. What role will technological improvement play? Taking all this into account, what kind of life can we produce in the best way for 10 billion people?” -Jacques Yves Cousteau ii Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ viii Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ix List of Abbreviations Used ............................................................................................................... x Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Thesis Structure ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Ecosystem Services ................................................................................................................ 5 1.2.1 Ecosystem Structure ....................................................................................................... 7 1.2.2 Substitutability of Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services ............................................ 9 1.3 Life Cycle Assessment .......................................................................................................... 10 1.3.1 Definition of Goal and Scope ........................................................................................ 11 1.3.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis ......................................................................................... 11 1.3.3 Co-Product Allocation ................................................................................................... 12 1.3.4. Life Cycle Impact Assessment ...................................................................................... 12 1.3.5 Interpretation ............................................................................................................... 13 1.3.6 Uncertainty in Life Cycle Assessment ........................................................................... 13 1.3.7 Scenario Analysis ........................................................................................................... 14 1.3.8 LCA in Aquaculture Systems ......................................................................................... 14 1.4 Salmon Aquaculture ............................................................................................................. 15 1.5 Guiding Statements ............................................................................................................. 19 Chapter 2. Sustainable Intensification: Conceptualizing Intensification Through the Lens of Ecosystem Services ........................................................................................................................ 20 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 20 2.2 Ecosystem Services and Substitution in Agro-ecosystems .................................................. 23 2.3 Framework for the Evaluation of Ecosystem Service Substitution in Agro-ecosystems (FEESSA) ..................................................................................................................................... 28 2.3.1 External Inputs - Resource Use Intensity ...................................................................... 30 2.3.2 Environmental Impacts ................................................................................................. 30 2.3.3 Ecosystem Services Substitution ................................................................................... 30 2.4 Application of FEESSA to Intensification Alternatives in an Aquaculture Setting ................ 31 iii 2.5 Discussion............................................................................................................................. 36 2.5.1 Aquaculture Example .................................................................................................... 38 2.5.2 Problems with Classification Scheme ........................................................................... 39 2.5.3 Problems with Ecosystem Service Substitution ............................................................ 40 2.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 41 Chapter 3. Life Cycle Assessment of a Novel Closed-Containment Salmon Aquaculture Technology ..................................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 43 3.1.1 Description of Solid-Wall Aquaculture System ............................................................. 47 3.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 47 3.2.1. Life Cycle Assessment .................................................................................................. 47 3.2.2 Definition of Goal and Scope ........................................................................................ 48 3.2.3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis ......................................................................................... 49 3.2.4 Co-Product Allocation ................................................................................................... 52 3.2.5 Modelling Hypothetical ‘Intended’ Production Cycle ................................................... 52 3.2.6 Life Cycle Impact Assessment ....................................................................................... 53 3.2.7 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis ............................................................................. 54 3.2.8 Scenario Analysis ........................................................................................................... 56 3.3 Results .................................................................................................................................. 57 3.3.1 Life Cycle Inventory ....................................................................................................... 57 3.3.2 Life Cycle Impact of SWAS ............................................................................................ 60 3.3.3 Sensitivity and Scenario Analyses ................................................................................. 63 3.3.4 Monte Carlo Analysis .................................................................................................... 65 3.4 Discussion............................................................................................................................. 65 3.4.1 Actual Production Cycle (APC) Versus Intended Production Cycle (IPC) ...................... 65 3.4.2 Growing Salmon in a Solid-Wall Aquaculture System .................................................. 67 3.4.3 Comparison with Net-Pens and Other Aquaculture Technologies ............................... 71 3.4.4 Contained Aquaculture and Ecosystem Services .......................................................... 74 3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 75 Chapter 4. Investigating Environmental Trade-Offs Associated With the Substitution of Ecosystem Services by Waste Capture in Salmon Aquaculture ..................................................... 77 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 77 iv 4.1.1 System Description ....................................................................................................... 79 4.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 80 4.2.1 Life Cycle Assessment ................................................................................................... 80 4.2.2 Goal and Scope ............................................................................................................. 80 4.2.3 Inventory Analysis ......................................................................................................... 80 4.2.4 Estimating Generator Size for the Waste Capture System ........................................... 82 4.2.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment ......................................................................................