ABSTRACT DJUNAEDI, KORNELIUS. Development of a Sliver Polymer Matrix Composite (SPMC) using Flax Fibers and Epoxy / Acrylated Epoxidized Soybean Oil Resin. (Under the direction of Professor Nancy B. Powell and Dr. Pamela Banks-Lee). Steel is widely used in fabricating automotive seat frames. Unfortunately, these materials are not renewable and take a somewhat longer time to degrade in a landfill than natural based biodegradable materials. Unprecedented growth of bio-based textile composites has drawn interest from various industries, such as automotive and transportation. Bio-based composite materials offer products that are biodegradable, easily recycled and can exceed the physical performance of metallic materials that are commercially available. Additional performance characteristics that composite materials can offer include weight reduction and strength improvement. The purpose of this research is to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of bio- based composite materials incorporating different linear densities of the flax sliver and blend ratios of Epoxy-soybean oil resin. Sliver is defined as a “continuous bundle of loosely untwisted fibers” [46]. The proposed fabrication concept is the impregnation of soybean-Epoxy resin into flax sliver. After resin impregnation of the flax sliver and curing it with the curing agent, the flax sliver – resin mixtures become rigid and support an increase in fiber loading. The resin consolidation method with sliver form is also called Sliver Polymer Matrix Composite (SPMC). One of the potential applications for the particular bio-based composite is automotive seat frames. The properties provided by SPMC, strength, weight reduction and biodegradability, are important to this final product. Three different linear densities of flax sliver were used, namely 8, 9 and 10 ply flax sliver. Each of the flax slivers has linear density of 250 grains/yard. Moreover, three blend ratios of Epoxy and Acrylated Epoxidized Soybean Oil (AESO) are also taken into consideration as another variable, namely 100% Epoxy resin, 30% AESO / 70% Epoxy resin, and 50% AESO / 50% Epoxy resin. This research analyzes the mechanical and physical properties of the rigid bio-based composite materials employing flax fibers. Physical testing was performed to determine the flexural rigidity (three-point bend), impact strength and biodegradability at varying sliver linear densities and Epoxy-soybean resin blend ratios. Flexural rigidity test utilized 9” x 1” (Length x diameter) samples, impact strength test utilized 3” x 1” (Length x diameter). The highest impact test value was achieved with samples of 10 ply flax sliver and 50% Epoxy / 50% AESO resin mixture. The impact test value for this particular sample was 57 ft-lb. The highest flexural rigidity test value was also achieved with samples of 10 ply of flax sliver with 50% / 50% Epoxy-AESO resin mixtures. The average flexural rigidity of this sample was 610 lbs. (280 kg). Developmentof a Sliver PolymerMatrix Composite(SPMC) using Flax Fibersand Epoxy / AcrylatedEpoxidized Soybean Oil Resin by KORNELIUS DJUNAEDI A thesissubmitted to the GraduateFacultv of Norlh CarolinaState University in partial fulfllhnent of the requirementslor the Degreeof Masterof Science TEXI'ILE AND APPAREL.TBCHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT Raleigh, North Clarolina MAY 2OO7 APPROVEDBY: y B. Powell,Co-Chatr Dr. PamelaBanks-Lee. Co-Chair Dr. StephenMichielsen BIOGRAPHY Kornelius Djunaedi was born on March 10, 1980 in West-Java, Indonesia. He graduated from Trinitas High School in June 1998 in Indonesia. He then attended Chien Tan language school in Taipei, Taiwan to obtain his certification in Chinese language until February 2000. After he prepared for the college in the United States, he then attended Philadelphia University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania for his Undergraduate degree. He graduated May 2004 from the Department of Textile Engineering with a Bachelor of Science degree in Textile Engineering. Kornelius began in the Masters of Science program at the College of Textiles at North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC in August 2005 pursuing his graduate degree in Master of Science in Textiles with Nonwovens Concentration ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work described in this thesis would have been impossible to achieve without the support, advice and friendship of the people mentioned below. I thank God for blessing me with the ability and the support to accomplish this chapter of my life. Words cannot express the love and respect I have for my entire family and my girlfriend. I thank you for encouraging me to accomplish more than I ever thought possible and thank you for accepting me with all my shortcomings, and for being a persistent source of security. I was fortunate to have magnificent advisory committees who provided me with the guidance, resource and encouragement needed to complete this study. I am grateful to my advisor, Professor Nancy Powell, Dr. Pamela Banks-Lee and Dr. Stephen Michielsen for their continued support, advice and friendship. Lastly, I thank Dr. Morton Barlaz and Mr. Dan Leonard for their invaluable aid. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….......vii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………......viii I. INTRODUCTION ………………………………….…………..…………………………………1 I.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ………...………………………..................................2 I.2. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY……….…………………………...................................2 I.3. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES…………………..………………………………………….........3 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………….………………………...................................4 II.1. AUTOMOTIVE PARADIGM………………..………………………..................................4 II.1.1. LIGHTERWEIGHT……………………………………....................................…...8 II.1.2. FUEL EFFICIENCY……………………..……………..........................................10 II.1.3. COST EFFECTIVENESS………………..………………………………………..12 II.1.4. BIODEGRADABILITY…………………...………………………………………13 II.2. AUTOMOTIVE REGULATION…………………………………….................................15 II.3. COMPOSITE…………………………………………..…………………………………..17 II.3.1. COMPOSITE IN AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION…….………………………...19 II.4. RAW MATERIAL……………………………………………............................................22 II.5. STEEL MATERIAL……………………………………………………………………….29 II.6. SOY-BASED RESIN……………………………………………........................................29 II.6.1. SOYBEAN IN AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION………………………………...31 iv II.7. CARDING PROCESS………………………………………………..................................33 II.8. CONSOLIDATION METHOD………………………..…………........................................34 III. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES ………………….…....……………………………...37 III.1. METHODOLOGY………………………………………………........................................37 III.1.1. TESTING STANDARDS………………………………………………………….37 III.1.2. TESTING INSTRUMENTS…………………………..……...................................37 III.1.3. MATERIALS…………………………………………...........................................38 III.1.4. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT..………………………………….............................40 III.1.5. CAR SEAT PREPARATION ……………………………………………………..41 III.1.6. RESIN PREPARATION………………….……………………………………….42 III.1.7. MOLD PREPARATION…………………………………………………………..42 III.1.8. FABRICATION PROCESS……………………………………………………….45 III.1.8.1. FABRICATION STEPS……………………………………………………45 III.2. TESTING PROCEDURES………………………….……………......................................47 III.2.1. FIBER TESTING…………………………………………….................................47 III.2.2. FLEXURAL RIGIDITY TESTING………………….............................................48 III.2.3. IMPACT TESTING……………………………......................................................49 III.2.4. ANAEROBIC BIODEGRADABILITY TESTING….............................................51 III.2.5. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE FRACTURE ANALYSIS...................53 IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION …………………………………………………………………..54 IV.1. FIBER TESTING RESULT……………………………...……...........................................54 IV.2. FLEXURAL RIGIDITY TESTING RESULT………...…………………………………..55 IV.3. IMPACT TESTING RESULT……………………………………......................................57 IV.4. ANAEROBIC BIODEGRADABILITY TESTING RESULT…….....................................59 v IV.5. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE FRACTURE ANALYSIS…………………...60 V. CONCLUSIONS………………………………. .…………...…………………………………...67 VI. FUTURE RESEARCH……………………………………………….…......................................70 VII. REFERENCES………..………………….…………………………….....................................71 VIII. APPENDICES……………………………………………………….........................................79 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Vehicle seat weight and price comparison of an SUV, truck, sport-type and sedan…………..9 2. Global production of automotive textiles by manufacturing technology, 1985-2005 ……….20 3. Weight reduction of natural fiber reinforced (NFR) composites….....………………………22 4. Chemical composition of natural fibers……………………….…….……………………….24 5. Comparison of the Young’s modulus of several bast and synthetic fibers…………………..25 6. Properties of glass and natural fibers………………………………..…..................................26 7. Mechanical characteristics of certain fibers…………………………..……………………...26 8. The use of natural fibers by the German automotive industry 1996 – 2003…………………27 9. Projected soy-based resin use in automobile in 2010………….……...……………………...32 10. Cost comparison of different composite processes……….…….….….…..............................35 11. Test Standards table used for Sliver Polymer Matrix Composite……………………………37 12. Design of experiment……...………………….……………………………………………...39 13. Material & source table