saqarTvelos mecnierebaTa erovnuli akademiis moambe, 175, #2, 2007 BULLETIN OF THE GEORGIAN NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 175, #2, 2007 Semiotics & Linguistics Typology of Writing and the Origin of Alphabetic Script Thomas V. Gamkrelidze* * Academy Member, G. Tsereteli Institute of Oriental Studies, Tbilisi; Georgian National Academy of Sciences ABSTRACT. The conceptualization of writing as a sign system affords a better insight into its ontological nature. This conceptualization enables one to develop a general typology of writing and to determine its place in the development of human culture. Comparative analysis of various types of scripts is presented in order to develop criteria for their assessment necessary for the clarification of the question of the origin of writing and determina- tion of the principal stages of its phylogenetic development. © 2007 Bull. Georg. Natl. Acad. Sci. Key words: typology of writing, alphabetic script, semiotic system. 1. Writing as a semiotic system. Writing systems sion and content. The expression of a graphic symbol, or may be conceptualized in what follows as a set of inter- its signifier (signans) is that physical substance by related signs of a special nature, forming a single integral means of which a visual representation of a sign is real- structure. The conceptualization of writing as a semiotic ized. This representation may be a drawing, a geometric system places it on a par with other analogous human sign, or a figure. The content of a graphic sign, or its systems. This defines the theory of writing, proposed in signified (signatum) is all that is expressed by such a modern linguistic science to be named grammatology, as written symbol, all to which it is correlated. This may be a division of the general theory of sign systems, viz. a definite concept, idea, number, word, syllable, or an semiotics or semiology. individual sound. The writing system, when seen as a Thus we may apply to the writing system a number sign system, is characterized by two planes: those of of operational concepts developed in other semiotic dis- expression and content, to which, because of their dual ciplines, primarily in linguistics. This is facilitated not nature, the graphic signs of a particular writing system only by the close historical relationship that exists be- are correlated. tween language and writing - the latter in a sense being Such a dual nature of the writing system gives superimposed on language - but also by the very na- grounds for a typological classification of writing accord- ture of writing, which displays many of the common ing to the character of its “plane of expression”. This structural features of a language system. The classification in turn permits a comparative analysis of conceptualization of writing as a sign system affords a various types of scripts in order to develop criteria for better insight into its ontological nature. This their assessment, necessary for the clarification of the conceptualization enables one to develop a general ty- question of the origin of writing and determination of the pology of writing and to determine its place in the de- principal stages of its phylogenetic development. The velopment of human culture [1]. phylogenetic development (or phylogeny) of writing re- 2. The “Plane of content” and the “Plane of expres- fers to the evolution of writing in general, with account sion” of writing. As a semiotic system, writing consists of the consecutive stages of its development, beginning of visual symbols of sign structure. This means that ev- with semiography up to the alphabetic stage of phonog- ery written sign-symbol constitutes a two-sided entity, raphy. The ontogenetic development (or ontogeny) of i.e., a systemic unit characterized by two sides: expres- writing is the origin and development of the consecutive © 2007 Bull. Georg. Natl. Acad. Sci. Typology of Writing and the Origin of Alphabetic Scripts 153 stages of an individual writing system, beginning with universal conceptual categories of the language - essen- its creation and continuing up to the time of its study. tially available to all language communities at a definite Two principal typological classes may be identified level of cultural development - but to the concrete pho- with regard to the “plane of content”: (a) semasiography netics of a particular language. In such systems it is not or ideography, and (b) phonography. concepts that play the role of the signified of particular Semasiography is characteristic of the class of writ- signs, but concrete words characterized by concrete ing systems in which the graphic signs designate not sounding, or language units of a lower order - individual the phonetic side of a particular language (individual syllables and/or sounds. In the case of phonographic words, syllables, or sounds of the given language), but systems, knowledge of the writing system presupposes instead denote concrete concepts or even whole situa- the preliminary knowledge of the relationship - often con- tions. They correlate directly with the “plane of content” ventional - between the sign and the concrete phonetic of language. In other words, in such writing systems the word of the given language, or the sound segment of a plane of content, expressed by the words and phrases of lower order (syllable, sound). a particular language is directly reflected in the signs, Writing proper is believed - apparently without suf- the latter performing the role of units which - along with ficient grounds - to be represented by phonographic the words and word combinations of a concrete language systems, while ideography constitutes in its phyloge- – designate universal conceptual categories of various netic development a sort of precursor of writing. levels of abstraction. Such signs in ideographic Thus, in phonographic systems writing is already (semasiographic) systems, being correlated to definite correlated to speech, and the phonetic form of a lan- concepts but devoid of the phonetic envelope of the guage serves as the plane of content of such systems - words of concrete languages, are understood and read definite sound segments (phonetic word, syllables, or correctly by representatives of diverse languages who individual sounds) turn into the signified of the graphic possess knowledge of these signs, i.e., knowledge of the signs of a writing system. correlation of these signs with concepts. Such knowl- A writing system related to phonography and pos- edge of the content of the signs and symbols of an ideo- sessing characters expressing individual lexemes of a graphic system is based either on the identification of concrete language, is defined as logographic. A sepa- their signifiers with objects of the real world, whose rate sign of such a system is a logogram. A phonographic iconic reflection they are, or on a conventionally adopted system with characters expressing separate syllables is relation of concrete signs of a writing system to corre- defined as syllabography. The characters of such a sys- sponding semantic conceptual signifiers. Elements of tem are syllabograms. A phonographic system with signs ideography are present in many ancient and modern writ- expressing individual sounds (sound units) is described ing systems (cf. for example, the numerical designations as an alphabet. in most writing systems, symbols of the type of &, e.g., In the typology of writing, the alphabetic system cf. in English, the system of mathematical signs, and so occupies the highest rank. It is the most economical in on). Uninterrupted ideographic writing systems are char- terms of the number of signs needed for a complete re- acteristic of the ancient stages of the phylogenetic de- cording of phonetic speech and for the transmission of velopment of writing. information over a distance. Thereby the invention of In this connection the question arises regarding the plane of expression of a writing system. The characters alphabetic writing signified an outstanding achievement of an ideographic system may graphically resemble the in the cultural development of mankind. In the form of objects of the real world to which they are correlated alphabetic writing mankind acquired a simple and effec- through their connection with corresponding concepts. tive means of graphic recording of speech and of its This iconic resemblance of the signifiers of the signs of transmission over space and time. Elements of ideography the system to the objects they reflect characterizes the may be present in any alphabetic writing. Hence, one writing system as pictographic, i.e., an iconic system of can speak only conventionally about the greater perfec- writing. tion of the alphabetic system of writing in comparison When there is no external resemblance between the with ideography. The “perfection” of alphabetic writing symbols of the ideographic system and the objects of should be taken in the sense that it is chronologically a the real world to which they are correlated by virtue of further stage in the phylogenetic development of writ- their link with corresponding conceptual categories (cf. ing, consecutively passing the stages of ideography, for example, numerical designations) the writing system logography, and syllabography, up to the emergence of may be described as conventional. the alphabetic system proper, although in the develop- Phonography refers to a class of writing systems in ment of alphabetic writing cases may be observable of a which the signifiers of the signs are correlated not to the