Human Factors, User Requirements, and User Acceptance of Ride-Sharing In Automated Vehicles Di1scussion P0aper 2017 • 10 Natasha Merat and Ruth Madigan Institute for Transport Studies, University Of Leeds, Leeds, UK Sina Nordhoff Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands Human Factors, User Requirements, and User Acceptance of Ride-Sharing in Automated Vehicles Discussion Paper No. 2017-10 Prepared for the Roundtable on Cooperative Mobility Systems and Automated Driving (6-7 December 2016) Natasha Merat and Ruth Madigan Institute for Transport Studies, University Of Leeds, Leeds, UK Sina Nordhoff Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands Innovation Centre for Mobility and Societal Change, Berlin, Germany July 2017 The International Transport Forum The International Transport Forum is an intergovernmental organisation with 59 member countries. 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Natasha Merat, Ruth Madigan and Sina Nordhoff– Human factors, user requirements, and user acceptance of ride-sharing in automated vehicles Acknowledgements Some of the work cited in this paper is linked to the studies conducted by Merat and Madigan for the CityMobil2 project, funded by the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (GRANT AGREEMENT N°: 314190). The CityMobil2 project also initiated the collaboration with the third author, Ms Sina Nordhoff, who is currently a PhD student at Delft University of Technology, conducting her PhD on user acceptance of highly automated vehicles in public transport. This PhD is funded by the Innovation Centre for Mobility and Societal Change in Berlin. ITF Discussion Paper 2017-10 — © OECD/ITF 2017 3 Natasha Merat, Ruth Madigan and Sina Nordhoff– Human factors, user requirements, and user acceptance of ride-sharing in automated vehicles Abstract This paper provides an overview of the social-psychological factors that are likely to influence the trust and acceptance of shared SAE Level 4 Automated Vehicles (AVs). It begins with a short summary of what influences users’ engagement in ride-sharing for conventional vehicles, followed by the factors that affect user acceptance and trust of robotic systems. Using studies of human robot interaction (HRI), recommendations are made on how to improve users’ trust, acceptance and use of shared AVs. Results from real-world studies and on-line surveys provide some contradictory views regarding willingness to accept and use the systems, which may be partly due to the fact that on-line users have not had actual interactions with AVs. We recommend that the pathway to adoption and acceptance of AVs should be incremental and iterative, providing users with hands-on experience of the systems at every stage. This removes unrealistic, idealised, expectations, which can ultimately hamper acceptance. Manufacturers may also use new technologies, social-networks and crowd- sourcing techniques to receive feedback and input from consumers themselves, in order to increase adoption and acceptance of shared AVs. 4 ITF Discussion Paper 2017-10 — © OECD/ITF 2017 Natasha Merat, Ruth Madigan and Sina Nordhoff– Human factors, user requirements, and user acceptance of ride-sharing in automated vehicles Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 6 Overview of social-psychological factors affecting the use of shared ...................................... 7 conventional vehicles .................................................................................................................... 7 Users’ desire to engage with AVs – web-based studies ............................................................. 9 Factors influencing trust and acceptance of AVs ..................................................................... 10 Distinguishing between acceptance and acceptability ............................................................. 10 Use of social-psychological models to study user acceptance of AVs .................................... 10 From acceptance to trust .......................................................................................................... 12 Real-world studies on user acceptance of ride-sharing AVs .................................................... 15 User willingness to share a small unattended vehicle with strangers .................................... 16 Realistic opportunities to serve mobility-impaired users ....................................................... 17 Interactions of AVs with pedestrians and bicyclists ................................................................. 18 Summary and conclusions ......................................................................................................... 20 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 23 ITF Discussion Paper 2017-10 — © OECD/ITF 2017 5 Natasha Merat, Ruth Madigan and Sina Nordhoff– Human factors, user requirements, and user acceptance of ride-sharing in automated vehicles Introduction This paper offers an overview of some of the social-psychological factors likely to affect car- and ride-sharing for automated vehicles (AVs), providing an indication of the issues that will affect if, how and when citizens will need, utilise and be prepared to pay for automated ride-sharing systems. It is hoped this information can be used by policy makers and city authorities, when attempting to establish the best model for deploying such systems. The paper summarises key results from a number of recent surveys conducted on citizens around the globe, and the small number of actual demonstration projects, where users’ views are sought during AV trials. However, likely caveats exist for both sets of data: the former simply rely on participants’ image or perception of the systems, as portrayed by the popular/social media, or may well be developed following the descriptions provided by the survey questions/investigator. On the other hand, large-scale and commercially viable AVs, which are shown to be fully reliable and operating at an optimal level, are not yet available for general public use1. In addition, most such vehicles are currently based on prototypes, which are being tested to identify any operational and technological shortcomings. Assessments include how such AVs can be deployed in the current road network, and how the fast developing (but not yet optimal) mapping and communications technologies influence successful operation. Consequently, seeking users’ views of their benefit will likely reflect such shortcomings, a factor which must be taken into account when assessing user response to current AVs. Therefore, as well as considering studies which take users’ impression of AVs