B UC-NRLF 332. B 4 SDb MbT 00O Q HISTORY ITS RISE AND DEVELOPMENT A Survey of the Progress of Historical Writing from Its Origins to the Present Day BY HARRY ELMER BARNES, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History, Clark College, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. REPRINTED FROM THE 1919 EDITION OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA p^/'Y77- V P'-^./^cCc^i'O-f-o? ; ' v\ HISCOCK — HISTORY, ITS RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 205 HISCOCK, Frank, American legislator: b. and has been cultivated by Virchow, who was Pompey, Onondaga County, N. Y., 6 Sept. 1834; the founder of cellular pathologv. d. 18 June 1914. In 1855 he was admitted to Vegetable histology' is that department of the bar, in 1860-63 was district attorney of botany which deals with microscopic phytotomy Onondaga County, and in 1867 a member of or the anatomy of plants, especially investigat- the State constitutional convention of New ing the plant cells and plant tissues. It is prop- York. He was a Republican representative in erly subordinate to morphology and is a dis- Congress in 1879-^7, and obtained recognition tinctively descriptive science. It deals with the as a party leader and speaker. In 1887-93 he question in what relation the cells or forms of was United States senator from New York tissue stand to the vital activity of plants, what and chairman of the appropriations committees functions they perform, and in what respect and then returned to professional practice. they are constituted for the fulfilling of those HISPANIA, hTs-pa'm-a. See Spain. functions. (Compare Cytology). Owing to the excessive minuteness of the cells which HISSAR, one of the mailed catfishes of form the tissues of all plants the investigation northern South America, noted for its relies almost entirely on the microscope, and monogamous habits, and the fact the eggs, a naturally has made its advance in proportion as few at a time, are voided by the female into a the microscope has been made more perfect. pouch made by the folded membranes of her Microscopes that are now used magnify at ventral fins. Here they are fertilized by the least l.CKX) diameters, and the materials used male, and then are taken by the faithful pair to have to be carefully prepared and mounted. a secluded place and deposited. This opera- Many of them have to be colored with tion is repeated until about 250 eggs are placed haematoxylin, fuchsin, saflFranin, and other in the nest which is then guarded. The hissar alcoholic or aqueous dyes. Consult Bailey, F. and several other species belong to the genus R., ^Text-Book of Histology* (4th ed., New Callichthys. York 1913); Chamberlain, C. J., 'Methods in HISTOLOGY, the science of animal and Plant Histology* (2d ed., Chicago 1905) ; Lee, vegetable tissues. It investigates by means of A. B., "^Microtomist's Vade-mecum* (6th ed., the microscope the various tissues of man, ani- Philadelphia 1905) ; Strasburger, E., <Hand- mals and plants in their anatomical relations book of Practical Botany* (7th ed.. New York and compositions. Topographical histology 1911); Delafield and Prudden, <Handbo.k of considers the more minute structures of the Pathological Anatomy and Histology* (9th cd., organs and systems of the body; normal his- New York 1911). tology deals with the healthy tissues; and HISTORICAL DETERMINISM. See pathological histology investigates the changes Determinism. they undergo in disease. Marie Frangois Xavier that branch Bichat (1771-1802) is generally credited with HISTORICAL GEOLOGY, the foundation of the science of histology. Un- of the subject that deals with the orderly treat- the fotunately the imperfect condition of the ment of events of the past, chronologically, and with regard to cause and effect It microscope in his time prevented Bichat and his due includes contemporaries from carrying their investiga- Paleontology (q.v.) and Stratigraphy (q.v.). See section Stratigraphy in tions to the point which Schleiden, Schwann, on the article on also Paleozoic, Johann MiJller, Virchow, Von Recklinghausen, Geology. See Cam- brian, Carboniferous, etc. Cohnheim, etc., have reached. It has been found that all structures however complex are HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF ECONOM- made up of cells, and that the parts of a body ICS. See EcoNo.Mics. may be resolved into a small number of ele- HISTORY, ITS RISE AND DEVE mentary tissues now grouped as: (1) epithel- OPMENT: A Survey of the Progress ci ium, which lines almost all the cavities of the Historical Writing from its Origins tc the body and is directly or indirectly in communi- Present Day. cation with the atmosphere the nervous ; (2) tissues, which as nerve cells originate and as I. The Nature of History. nervous fibres transmit all nervous impulses 1. Meaning of the Term.— The term His- (3) muscle, which produces motion whether tory, in popular usage, has been applied ti two voluntary or involuntary; (4) glandular tissue somewhat different concepts. It is often used which consists of cells standing in close relation to designate the sum total of human activities, with the blood-vessels which take from the and it is when used in this sense that one often blood certain substances and secrete them; (5) hears the remark at a particularly active or connective substances which support and hold critical period in human events that '^r.mv together the more delicate and important struc- history is being made." A more common ii-iitf tures, especially forming the cartilages and is that w'hich regards history as the recon! >i bones. See Plants, Structure of. the events rather than as the events in ',v Many tissues have the power of repairing selves. In this latter generally accepted c ;i- injuries that happen to them. This power is notation given to the term history, two d i":::- called regeneration, and is found especially tions may be offered. In an objective -ense in the lower animals, in polvps, worms and in history is, to use the words of Professor many amphibious creatures" and reptiles. In Robinson, "all we kn^w about everything maJi other cases the lesion is supplied by a new has ever done, or thought, or hoped, or fell/" growth of connective substance. In diseases Subjectively or psychologically expressed, his- the tissues undergo many changes and many of torj' may be regarded as a record, of all that these diseases in the organism are shown also has occurred within the realm of human con- by the changing of color. Thp science of such sciousness. Kanges is generally called pathological his- In this sense ot a record of the acri ''Ogy. It is a comparatively youngs science of the human race, history has been reg -Q Q < J no A )\ -'06 HISTORY. JTS RISE AND DEVELOPMENT mc, particularly in earlier periods, as artifacts which were sufficiently distinctive in' ily ail art — a branch of lilcratiire. By form and durable in material composition to imially incriising minilur of autlioritifs have been preserved through the ages as evi- tcndtci, however, in lis modern form, to dence of what mankind was accomplishing in isidered as in the main a genetic social the vast expanse of time before the art of ', which i- concerned with reconstruct- writing was mastered. History, thus, may past thoughts and activities of human- probably be said to have had its real origin in 1 the present article history will he re- the disputed eolithic period, and the first his- ip the sense of a science rather than as torical document may be accurately held to ; Ht is the thesis of the writer that his- have been the first indisputable eolith, or if the :\ an lay no more claim to being an art eolithic period be denied, the first definite ;; ..i; .mv other branch of social science and paleolith of the river drift period. iliat while artistic achievement may be desired Space does not here allow even the briefest in history it is quite subordinate in importance resume of that most interesting story of the ! -I'tntific accuracy and constructive thought. early development of mankind as revealed by M t, progress in historical writing may al- the artifacts which have been preserved. The ! lie regarded as a development from an art thrilling evidences of man's interests and lu a ^ciencc. It is this which constitutes the activities in that almost inmcasurable period of progress from Livy to Ranke or from Herodo- a quarter of a million years which are revealed tus to Gardiner. by the "coup dc poings" of the river drift 2. Fallacy of the Term Pre-historic— Be- period, the remarkable flaked flints of the cave fore the important developments in anthropology period, as well as the engraving on animal and pre-historic archa'ology, which have done bones and the early paintings from such sites so much to extend our knowledge of human as Altamira and Font-de-Gaume and the activities in the distant past, it w-as the con- wonderful products of the bronze and iron veiitii nal practice to limit the term history to a ages, are all subjects of the most compelling fee : of those events which were described or interest, for the complete treatment of which pri ved in literary remains. Now, however, the reader must^be referred to the article on w !" archaeology tells one much more of cer- "Archaeology." i^uflfice it to say at this point tain jihascs of the early life of man than was that these archaeological products of the pre- one known of even more recent periods literary period mark the real threshold of his- through literary evidence, it is no longer ac- tory. cunce nor logical to use the term «pre-his- Nor can one, in the space, allotted to this t'.ri ,» unless it is employed to designate that article, do more than to refer to the origin in xi^'ie and hypothetical period in the beginnings modern times of the science of pre-historic ! 1 iman development of which there exists archaeology, so inextricably connected with :• sitive and tangible record, or unless one is the work of such men as Boucher de Perthes, :i.i;.