Template B v4.1 (beta): Created by L. Threet 11/15/19 Swamp thing: Alligators, symbolism, and the meaning of animals in the American south By TITLE PAGE Nathan Drake Approved by: Peter C. Messer (Major Professor) Mark D. Hersey James C. Giesen Alexandra Hui Rick Travis (Dean, College of Arts & Sciences) A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Mississippi State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the Department of History Mississippi State, Mississippi May 2020 Copyright by COPYRIGHT PAGE Nathan Drake 2020 Name: Nathan Drake ABSTRACT Date of Degree: May 1, 2020 Institution: Mississippi State University Major Field: History Major Professor: Peter C. Messer Title of Study: Swamp thing: Alligators, symbolism, and the meaning of animals in the American south Pages in Study: 232 Candidate for Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Humans form lasting and unique relationships with the natural world and, by extension, the organisms and animals who have for millennia carved out niche environments. Scholars and general observers agree—at least in principle—that human beings have actively shaped (for better and for worse) the habitats, behaviors, and population of the Earth’s creatures. In turn, those spaces and animals have influenced not only how humans think of the natural world, but also of humanity itself. Animals, in other words, help humans understand themselves.1 This dissertation is a history of the American Alligator. A study of human interactions with alligators can reveal not only how humans viewed the animal, but also how they created, recreated, and utilized those representations to meet their own ends. Much of what humans attached to alligators—either positive, negative, or oscillating between—were the results of an internal process of dialogue, culture, and human psychology. In simpler terms, this research investigates how human beings understand themselves and how a particular species fits within human understandings of the “natural” world. A large literature exists on the study of species and, in addition, southern wildlife and ecology. 1 Dan Flores, Coyote America: A Natural and Supernatural History (New York: Basic Books, 2016), 18-20. DEDICATION Someone once told me that writing history is a downright lonely pursuit. I disagree. Most, if not all, historians collaborate, argue, discuss, and share their ideas and research. That process, moreover, begins early in a student’s graduate career. The notion that historians (and academics generally) are awkward, socially stunted shut-ins is a serious misconception. Without a great deal of help, guidance, criticism, and support, there would be no dissertations—or books for that matter. This dissertation is no different in that regard. At the University of Southern Indiana, Professors Michael Dixon, Casey Harrison, Ginette Aley, and Christine Lovasz-Kaiser built a foundation from which I could venture out into the world of academia. I still miss their guidance. It took a while, but I established my own academic footing in the mountains of east Tennessee. There, Steve Nash and Tom Lee admirably endured my repeated drop-ins and incessant questions about the field at-large. I understood so little at the time, in retrospect, and only now have a full appreciation for every ounce of patience they displayed and every crumb of advice they provided. Had Steve Nash not arrived at ETSU when he did, I would not be writing these acknowledgments today. The Department of History at Mississippi State University is, I can assure any reader, a very special place. Even those that were not members of this committee still contributed in meaningful ways, which is often not the case at other institutions. Judy Ridner, Michael Vinson Williams, Jason Ward, Alison Greene, Anne Marshall, Matt Lavine, and Brandon Byrd, all helped guide me through teaching courses and becoming a professional student. Jason K. Phillips ii was present and fundamental in the early stages of this project, and he deserves a special thanks for having a lengthy discussion about this dissertation late at night, in Florida, when he undoubtedly had a million better things to do. Also, nearly everything I know about Mississippi State University and other American universities came from Alan Marcus. His office is currently, and will continue to be, a weekly destination. Peter Messer, Jim Giesen, Mark Hersey, and Alexandra Hui are not only imminent scholars, but also fundamentally good human beings. I have known each of them for the better part of a decade, and not once did any member of that group give less than a million percent of attention, direction, and guidance. They have mentored a host of outstanding students through their academic careers and I am eternally grateful and humbled to be a part of that group. Everything that is good about this dissertation is attributed to them. Any shortcomings are mine. A host of others deserve thanks, notably Bert Way, Mark Barrow, Emmett Essin, Stephen Fritz, Melvin Page, Elwood Watson, Peter Alagona, Bryant Simon, Claire Strom, Mark Finlay, Brien Henry, Brad Moreland, Rebecca Long, and most certainly Jon T. Coleman. Any significant achievement in academia requires the support of your colleagues. Darnell Holland, Karen Senaga, Owen Hyman, Jason Hauser, Alyssa Warrick, Michael Murphy, Aaron Thomas, Michael Abernethy, and Erin McComb each offered insight and inspiration throughout my graduate career. Laurie Pate, an accomplished scholar in her own right, forced me to sit, read, think, and most importantly, type when I wanted to mow the lawn instead. This project would not have been completed without her. Simple as that. My mother, father, siblings, and grandparents have already received their personalized acknowledgments page. And finally, this is dedicated to M. and R. You are with me every day. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................ii LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................1 II. CREATING ORDER TO CONTROL FEAR .................................................................23 III. THIS LITTLE GATOR GOES TO MARKET: ALLIGATORS AS COMMODITIES.54 IV. GATOR AID: FROM SWAMP TO FARM ...................................................................91 V. REPTILE RESURRECTION: THE REEMERGENCE OF A SOUTHERN ICON ....129 VI. WALT GATOR WORLD: ALLIGATORS, SUBURBIA, AND TROPHY HUNTING .......................................................................................................................................169 VII. EPILOGUE: COME GATORS AND HIGH WATER .................................................212 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................215 iv LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Defending the Village Against an Alligator ...............................................................14 6.1 Wakulla Springs Boat Tour ......................................................................................185 6.2 Family Poses with Record Alligator ........................................................................196 6.3 Alligator Biting Hunter Drawing .............................................................................209 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Humans form lasting and unique relationships with the natural world and, by extension, the organisms and animals who have for millennia carved out niche environments. Scholars and general observers agree—at least in principle—that human beings have actively shaped (for better and for worse) the habitats, behaviors, and population of the Earth’s creatures. In turn, those spaces and animals have influenced not only how humans think of the natural world, but also of humanity itself. Animals, in other words, help humans understand themselves.2 This dissertation is a history of the American Alligator. A study of human interactions with alligators can reveal not only how humans viewed the animal, but also how they created, recreated, and utilized those representations to meet their own ends. Much of what humans attached to alligators—either positive, negative, or oscillating between—were the results of an internal process of dialogue, culture, and human psychology. In simpler terms, this research investigates how human beings understand themselves and how a particular species fits within human understandings of the “natural” world. A large literature exists on the study of species and, in addition, southern wildlife and ecology. This research builds upon those foundational principles. “Any environmental history,” wrote Albert Cowdrey, “must find an inevitable theme in the increasing human power that tends toward both a more refined stewardship and a more dangerous inadvertency.” Such as the story of humans and the American Alligator. For centuries 2 Dan Flores, Coyote America: A Natural and Supernatural History (New York: Basic Books, 2016), 18-20. 1 humans worked to better understand (and control) the species. By knowing the species, the more adept humans could become at both managing their emotional reactions to the animals and, indeed, the animal itself. Throughout that centuries-long process, humans inadvertently pushed the alligator towards