Cross-Disciplinary Investigation of Ancient Long-Distance Water Pipelines by Milorad Nikolic B.Eng., Coventry Polytechnic, 1991 Dipl.-Ing. (FH), Fachhochschule Osnabrück, 1992 M.Sc., Carl-von-Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, 1996 M.A., University of Calgary, 2003 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Greek and Roman Studies © Milorad Nikolic, 2008 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopying or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Cross-Disciplinary Investigation of Ancient Long-Distance Water Pipelines by Milorad Nikolic B.Eng., Coventry Polytechnic, 1991 Dipl.-Ing. (FH), Fachhochschule Osnabrück, 1992 M.Sc., Carl-von-Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, 1996 M.A., University of Calgary, 2003 Supervisory Committee Dr. John P. Oleson, Supervisor (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Dr. R. Brendan Burke, Departmental Member (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Dr. Cedric A. J. Littlewood, Departmental Member (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Dr. Nedjib Djilali, Outside Member (Department of Mechanical Engineering) Dr. E. Hector Williams, External Examiner (Department of Classical, Near Eastern & Religious Studies, University of British Columbia) iii Supervisory Committee Dr. John P. Oleson, Supervisor (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Dr. R. Brendan Burke, Departmental Member (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Dr. Cedric A. J. Littlewood, Departmental Member (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Dr. Nedjib Djilali, Outside Member (Department of Mechanical Engineering) Dr. E. Hector Williams, External Examiner (Department of Classical, Near Eastern & Religious Studies, University of British Columbia) Abstract This dissertation demonstrates how the cross-disciplinary application of methods and tools from archaeology, philology, and engineering can yield insights into ancient water- supply systems and help to solve problems associated with their precise function and with their description in ancient literature. Conventional calculations determine the flow properties of seven ancient long-distance pipelines. Components of the water-supply pipeline at Aspendos are simulated with a commercially available Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software package (FLUENT® by Fluent Inc.) that is widely used in the design and research of complex flow systems. The application of CFD clarifies the interaction of water and air during the filling process of a pipeline. The project establishes a methodology using state-of-the-art computer simulation tools for the investigation of these systems. The combination of the numerical results with the insights derived from a comparison of Latin technical documents with ancient Greek medical texts answers conclusively some long-term questions that have been plaguing aqueduct iv research for a long time. The simulation makes visible the flow of water in the pipeline, disproving the long-term misunderstanding that entrained air will form bubbles in the flowing water column that lead to pressure transient. It is possible to explain the function of lateral holes in the sides of pipe segments. The calculated volume flow rates for each pipeline allow estimates about the population sizes for the cities supplies by the aqueducts. The creation of a computer-based methodology for the study of ancient aqueducts will enable scholars to investigate, compare, and catalogue a wide variety of ancient hydraulic systems. v Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... xiii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xvi 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 2. Survey of Ancient Literature..................................................................................... 12 2.1 Marcus Vitruvius Pollio ............................................................................................. 13 2.2 Hero of Alexandria .................................................................................................... 50 2.3 Gaius Plinius Secundus .............................................................................................. 59 2.4 Sextus Iulius Frontinus .............................................................................................. 61 3. Vitruvius and the Greeks .......................................................................................... 63 4. Archaeological Evidence .......................................................................................... 86 5. Pergamum ................................................................................................................. 89 5.1 Location ..................................................................................................................... 89 5.2 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 90 5.3 History ........................................................................................................................ 91 5.4 Communications ........................................................................................................ 95 5.5 Water Supply System ................................................................................................. 95 6. Smyrna .................................................................................................................... 110 6.1 Location ................................................................................................................... 110 6.2 Climate ..................................................................................................................... 110 6.3 Topography .............................................................................................................. 112 vi 6.4 Communications ...................................................................................................... 113 6.5 History ...................................................................................................................... 113 6.6 Water Supply ........................................................................................................... 116 7. Methymna ............................................................................................................... 127 7.1 Location ................................................................................................................... 127 7.2 Climate ..................................................................................................................... 128 7.3 History ...................................................................................................................... 129 7.4 Population ................................................................................................................ 131 7.5 Communications ...................................................................................................... 132 7.6 Economy .................................................................................................................. 133 7.7 Water Supply ........................................................................................................... 133 7.8 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 137 8. Alatri ....................................................................................................................... 149 8.1 Location ................................................................................................................... 149 8.2 Climate ..................................................................................................................... 149 8.3 History ...................................................................................................................... 152 8.4 Water Supply ........................................................................................................... 153 9. Lugdunum ............................................................................................................... 161 9.1 Location ................................................................................................................... 161 9.2 Climate ..................................................................................................................... 161 9.3 History .....................................................................................................................