Leiden University African Studies Centre Imagining the Nation: Assessing the Role and Functioning of the Eritrean Assembly in the Eritrean-Ethiopian Federation (1952-1962) A thesis submitted to the African Studies Centre of Leiden University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Research Masters in African Studies Anwar Seid Suleiman Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Jon Abbink Prof. Dr. Robert J. Ross Leiden, the Netherlands August, 2013 CONTENTS Acronyms iv Glossary of Terms v List of Tables, Maps and Illustrations vi Acknowledgement vii Abstract ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Problem Statement 2 1.3 Research Question 4 1.4 Methodology 5 1.5 State of Research 7 1.6 Relevance of the Study 9 1.7 Framework 11 1.8 Thesis Structure 16 CHAPTER TWO: A PRELUDE TO THE FEDERATION: A SURVEY OF POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN BRITISH ERITREA Introduction 18 2.1 Ethno-religious Composition of Eritrea 18 2.2 The Coming of the British and the Emergence of Sectarian Party Politics in Eritrea 21 The Lack of Distinctive Postcolonial Eritrean Identity 22 Party Politics on Ethnic and Religious Grounds 24 The Resort to Violence 31 2.3 The International Debate on the Eritrea and the UN Federal Decision 35 Conclusion 40 CHAPTER THREE: ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERATION AND FORMATION OF THE FIRST ERITREAN ASSEMBLY Introduction 41 3.1 Drafting the Eritrean Constitution: The Challenges 41 3.2 Elections and Establishment of the Eritrean Representative Assembly 48 3.3 The Debate on the Draft Constitution, its Ratification and the Emergence of the Federation 52 Conclusion 57 CHAPTER FOUR: THE FIRST LEGISLATURE OF THE ERITREAN ASSEMBLY (1952-1956) Introduction 58 4.1 Ethiopia's View of the Federation 58 4.2 The Position of the Executive Branch of the Eritrean Government 62 4.3 Dealing with Andargachew and Tedla: The Eritrean Assembly in the Tenure of the First Chief Executive 63 The Assembly in the Early Years of the Federation 64 The Assembly Challenging the Chief Executive and the Emperor's Representative 69 4.4 The Change in the Eritrean Leadership 82 Conclusion 89 CHAPTER FIVE: THE SECOND ERITREAN ASSEMBLY AND RAPID DETERIORATION OF THE FEDERATION (1956-1960) Introduction 90 5.1 The 1956 Elections and the Making of the Second Eritrean Assembly 90 Legality of the Electoral Law 90 The Election and its Irregularities 92 5.2 The Assembly in office and the Crumbling of Eritrean Autonomy 97 Why did the Assembly Paralyze? Some Explanations 106 5.3 Resistance to Ethiopian Hegemony 111 Conclusion 118 CHAPTER SIX: THE THIRD ERITREAN ASSEMBLY AND THE DISSOLUTION OF THE FEDERATION (1960-1962) Introduction 120 6.1 The 1960 Elections 120 6.2 Fleeting Lifeline to the Federation 122 6.3 The Assembly Under Pressure from the Eritrean Public and the Crown 124 The Crown's Strategy of Enlisting Support for Union 130 6.4 The Final Days of the Assembly and the Controversial Issue of the Vote 137 The Issue of the Vote 139 Did the Eritrean Assembly had a Mandate to Abolish the Federation? 145 6.5 Eritrea Annexed: The Aftermath 146 Conclusion 150 Final Conclusion 151 Bibliography 157 Appendices 162 ACRONYMS BCA British Consulate Asmara BCAA British Embassy Addis Ababa BMA British Military Administration CRIE Comitato Rappresentativeo Degli Italiani in Eritrea EDF Eritrean Democratic Front ELF Eritrean Liberation Front ELM Eritrean Liberation Movement FO Foreign Office (London UK) MFH Mahber Fikri Hager (Association to the Love of Country) MLWP Muslim League of Western Province RDC The Research and Documentation Center, Asmara, Eritrea UK United Kingdom UN United Nations US/USA United States (of America) iv GLOSSARY OF TERMS1 Abba Ecclesiastical title, meaning 'Father' Abune Title of the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Eritrea. equivalent to Bishop (Abun if not followed by name) Balambaras Title of respect/rank, equivalent to 'commander of the fortress' Bashai A basic title in the feudal hierarchy roughly equal to a 'quarter- master sergeant' Bitweded Title of high respect, meaning 'the beloved' (a trusted one by the Emperor) Blatta A basic title in the feudal hierarchy equivalent to counselor, meaning 'valued, trusted' Dejazmatch/Degiat Title of respect/rank, 'commander of the palace gate' or the 'center group' Fitawrari Title of respect/rank, 'commander of the vanguard' Grazmatch Title of respect/rank, 'commander of the left column' Haji A Muslim title given to those who made the pilgrimage to Mecca Kadi A Muslim title, meaning 'Judge' Kegnazmatch Title of respect/rank, 'commander of the right column' Melake Selam Term of respect meaning 'Angel of Peace' Meslene Title of respect, equivalent to (sub) district chief. Mufti Head and religious leader of Muslim community Nazir (sub) district chief among Muslims of Western Province of Eritrea Nebure'ed The ecclesiastical and secular leader of Church of Aksum Ras Title of respect/rank, equivalent to a duke and commander of the army, most senior rank just below the King/Emperor. Mostly Governor-General of a province. Sheikh A Muslim title equivalent to Mr. 1 Although some are military titles they contained etymological meaning and applicable to civilian ranks. v LIST OF TABLES, MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Tables Linguistic Diversity in 1950s Eritrea 19 1952 Election for Eritrean Assembly: Allocation of Seats 50 Maps Eritrea: in Northeast Africa x Location of the Ethnic Groups of Eritrea 20 The Provinces of Eritrea in 1950 21 Illustrations Funeral Procession of the Muslim-Christian Conflict (1950) 34 Election (1952): Eritreans Queuing for Electing Candidates 52 The UN Commissioner Presenting the Draft Constitution to the Representative Assembly 54 Emperor Haile Selassie Crossing the Mereb River to Enter Eritrea 56 Bitweded Andargachew Messai: The Emperor's Representative in Eritrea 78 Dejazmatch Tedla Bairu: The First Chief Executive of the Eritrean Government 82 Sheikh Ibrahim Sultan: Secretary General of the Muslim League and EDF 88 Melake Selam Dimetros Ghebremariam: Vice President of the Eritrean Assembly 99 Bitweded Asfaha Weldemikael: The Second Chief Executive of the Eritrean Government 100 Brigadier-General Abiy Abebe: The Emperor's Representative in Eritrea 104 Sheikh (later Dejazmatch) Hamid Ferej Hamid: President of the Eritrean Assembly 109 The Eritrean Assembly in Session 111 Title and Promotion Awarded Eritrean Elites 131 The Emperor Addressing Eritreans 133 Eritrean Audience to the Emperor's Address 134 Brigadier-General Tedla Uqbit: Head of the Eritrean Police 140 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENT First and foremost praise be to the Almighty Allah who enabled me to successfully complete this thesis. This thesis is the result of a six-month research fieldwork, from August 2012 to January 2013, in Eritrea. Its realization would not have been possible without the support I received from a number of people and institutions. I am humbled to acknowledge all these people from which I received support, courage, guidance and critical reflections which enabled me to finish this thesis. First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors, Prof. Robert Ross and Prof. Jon Abbink who had been working with me in this piece of work ever since I joined the RESMAAS program in September 2011. They were very helpful in guiding me to this stage. They played instrumental role in shaping my thesis through reading and critiquing my chapters; giving their illuminating comments and invaluable advices; and discussing my work at large. I am grateful to have worked under the supervision of one of the respected historians of Leiden University, Prof. Ross, whose great experience in teaching and supervision benefited me a lot in carrying out this work. Prof. Abbink's substantial knowledge of Eritrean history and his insistence on clarity have helped in shaping my thesis. I would like also to thank Prof. Bairu Tafla who gave me very encouraging and valuable comments when I had a blurry image of my project at the initial period of this research. I would like to thank Leiden University for awarding me the LExS scholarship which financed my two years study in Leiden University. Without such grant attending my Master study would have been hard. My fieldwork stay in Eritrea was made possible through the grants from Leiden University's Outbound Study Grant, the LUSTRA Scholarship and Leids Universiteits Fonds (LUF). I thank them all for the financial support. I am also grateful for the Research and Documentation Center (RDC) of Eritrea, whose rich records formed the basis of this thesis. The RDC gave me open access to all the available sources in its custody related to this study. My special thanks goes to the Head of the RDC, Mr. Zemhret Yohannes, who gave me unwavering support to my study, the Director, Ms. Azeb Tewelde and the staff members who eased my work in one way or another during my fieldwork, especially vii Merhawi, Mihreteab and Danait who tirelessly piled requested archives on my desk despite their busy schedules of the period. I am also thankful to historian and researcher, Mr. Alemseged Tesfai, for sharing me some interviews he made with former Eritrean Assembly members who were not alive at the time of my fieldwork. I would like also to thank two of my informants who willingly agreed to answer my questions. I would like also to take this opportunity to thank my classmates and friends in Leiden. It was a pleasure to share experiences with you all. The critical and invaluable discussions we had in class were indispensable to critically look at our projects. The guidance of Prof. Ross and Dr. Harry Wels, in the thesis writing class, were also very illuminating. I am also grateful to my other instructors and all the ASC staff in general. My gratitude extends especially to Prof. Mirjam de Bruijn, Dr. Azeb Amha, and Prof.