Designing Decision Support in an Evolving Sociotechnical Enterprise Connor Upton & Gavin Doherty Department of Computer Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland {[email protected], [email protected]} Frank Gleeson & Charlie Sheridan Intel Ireland Ltd., Leixlip, Co. Kildare, Ireland {[email protected],[email protected]} Abstract Modern manufacturing facilities are subject to organisational, technological, engineering and market constraints. The combination of these factors allows them to be described as sociotechnical enterprises. Control of these enterprises is distributed between human and automated agents who collaborate as part of a joint cognitive system. One of the challenges facing these industries is a need to evolve operations while maintaining stable performance. Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) provides a range of analytical frameworks that can be used to study the effects of change on sociotechnical systems. However, the scale of these enterprises and the range of decision-making styles involved make the selection of an appropriate framework difficult. A critical review of both positivist and hermeneutic approaches to cognitive systems research is provided. Following this a cognitive engineering process is outlined that uses a mixed model approach to describe system functionality, understand the implications of change and inform the design of cognitive artefacts that support system control. A case study examines the introduction of pervasive automation in the semiconductor manufacturing industry and is used to demonstrate the utility of this process. Keywords: Functional Modelling, Decision Support, Interface Design, Manufacturing, Automation 1. Introduction The discipline of Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) has developed significantly over the past few decades. Its research boundaries have expanded beyond human psychophysical abilities to include the construction of mental models, studies of teamwork and the role of phenomenology in decision making and control. Its focus has also shifted from the independent study of the attributes of humans or machines to a more holistic view, where control in modern work environments is carried out by a joint cognitive system of collaborating human and automated agents (Hollnagel & Woods, 2005). One result from these developments is an abundance of methods, models and research frameworks that can be used to investigate human work in technological environments. This creates a challenge for the analysis and design of socio-technical systems, as the researcher must select appropriate techniques for their particular domain. The different analytical frameworks have been developed from particular theoretical perspectives and in relation to certain types of work environments. This permits a researcher to select a framework whose exemplars have similar traits to the target domain. The issue with this approach is that many real- world situations are more complex than the exemplars provided and require the researcher to modify or extend the associated models and methods. One domain where this is particularly evident is the High Volume Manufacturing (HVM) of complex electronic components. This involves highly complex processes, pervasive automation, large social organisations and rapid changes in relation to performance and goals. It also involves different forms of decision-making ranging from normal operations, to diagnosis of faults, to strategic planning. The massive scales involved in these work environments warrant them to be described, not as socio-technical systems, but rather socio-technical enterprises where the design of system functionality must account for organisational, technological, engineering and market constraints. The complexity of analysing these Preprint of article in: Cognition, Technology & Work Volume 12, Number 1, 13-30, DOI: 10.1007/s10111-008-0124-1 environments is further compounded by the fact that they are subject to continuous improvement in relation to both process and operations. One example of this is the way in which pervasive automation is changing the distribution of work between human and automated systems. This continuous evolution of the industry means that a researcher’s domain of study is essentially a moving target. These qualities make it difficult, and perhaps even unwise, to rely on one particular analytical framework when studying a sociotechnical enterprise. There are a number of reasons for this. Firstly there is an issue of scale. While CSE exemplars have tended to be developed around microworlds, the enormous scales of these environments present a considerable modelling challenge. Secondly there is an issue of change. CSE exemplars tend to be developed around relatively stable environments in order to explain how theoretical models are applied. While these environments have dynamic system states, the constraints that define their functionality, i.e. agents and work configurations are normally static, at least for the duration of the study. Finally there is the issue of scope. As frameworks have been developed from particular theoretical perspectives, strict adherence to one view may result in important aspects of the work being missed. For example, frameworks that use ethnomethodological approaches can provide rich insight into behaviour but are weak at describing technical aspects of cognitive systems. In this article a cognitive engineering process is reported that draws uses a number of different modelling techniques in an effort to overcome the three issues described above. In the next section a selection of CSE frameworks and methodologies are divided into two categories and their utility for modelling an evolving sociotechnical enterprise is discussed. Following this a mixed model approach is presented. This incorporates a work domain model, models of distributed cognition, an intentional goal model and a model of cognitive strategies. These analytical models are coupled with a design process that involves generating higher-level variables and applying ecological interface design principles within a user-centred design approach. Section 4 introduces semiconductor manufacturing as the target domain of the case study. A dramatic increase in pervasive automation is changing this industry’s operational model from distributed to centralised control. The next three sections apply the proposed approach to modelling system functionality, analysing the impact of change and designing a decisions support system for the new work configuration. Section 8 outlines the merits and limitations of this process and discusses its status within the wider discipline of CSE. 2. Applying CSE Methods to an Evolving Sociotechnical Enterprise While a wide variety of cognitive engineering methods exist, it is possible to divide them into two broad categories according to their epistemological stance (Marmaras & Nathaneal, 2005). Empirical- positivist approaches attempt to model a cognitive system based on the physical and functional constraints imposed on the work by its environment. This can be considered a modernist perspective, which considers that human behaviour is in some way a prioi determined by the constraints and goals of the work system. Frameworks such as cognitive work analysis (Vicente, 1999) and modeling tools such as the abstraction hierarchy and multiflow-modelling (Lind, 1999) reside in this category. On the other hand, empirical-hermeneutic approaches examine work practices to derive behavioural patterns that can be used to describe system functionality. It views human behaviour as a product of interpretation, which requires an understanding of social and historic context. This can be considered a post-modern perspective as interpretation, or the establishment of meaning, requires the analyst to observe and explain the actions of workers. Distributed cognition and activity theory can be seen as analytical frameworks that exist within this category. These perspectives have different strengths and weaknesses in relation to analysis and design within an evolving sociotechnical enterprise. 2.1. Positivist/Formative Approaches If work is defined as purposeful action towards achieving a goal, in many situations (particularly in industrial settings) the manner in which this goal is achieved is constrained by the laws of nature and the limits of physical engineering. One example of a positivist approach used to analyse such domains is work domain modelling. The Abstraction Decomposition Space (ADS) is a work domain model that describes a system in terms of its physical and functional constraints (Rasmussen, 1985). It combines a functional abstraction hierarchy with a physical decomposition to generate a matrix that reveals the causal relationships between the high-level functional purpose of the overall system, the general functions carried out by its subsystems and the physical form of the system components. This approach has a number of advantages for analysing a sociotechnical enterprise. In terms of scale, the hierarchical nature of the model makes it useful for matching high-level system goals to lower level activities. As the analyst determines the level of granularity they wish to examine, a model can focus on a region or look at broad functionality. Also, as the model is based on system constraints, initial model construction can be developed around documentation and/or engineering models combined with targeted worker interviews. This reduces the amount of observational work required, which