The International Development Bank and the Making of Postcolonial Subjectivities By Marcelle Nolene Allen A Dissertation Submitted to Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration (Management) August, 2017, Halifax, Nova Scotia © Marcelle Nolene Allen, 2017 Approved: Dr. Jean Helms Mills, Supervisor Saint Mary’s University Approved: Dr. Basu Sharma, External Examiner University of New Brunswick Approved: Dr. Albert Mills, Committee Member Saint Mary’s University Approved: Dr. Christopher Hartt, Committee Member Dalhousie University Date: August 30, 2017 1 DEDICATION For my grandparents, Oscar and Mona Mercurius who encouraged me to always follow my dreams 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the wisdom and guidance of the Holy Spirit. I thank my Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ for guiding me to the Sobey PhD program and for the people He has used to assist me along this journey. To my ‘inner circle’ who are a pillar of strength, especially Bishop Dr. Joseph A. Quist and Dr. Nicholas Bastine, and the other labourers in God’s Kingdom’ (you know yourselves), I thank you for your prayers and support. To my family members and friends who have supported me along the way, your support is appreciated. I am grateful for the guidance and wisdom imparted by the Professors in the Sobey PhD program who I had the privilege of their tutelage. I could not have accomplished this task without your collective efforts. I thank Dr. Albert J. Mills for believing in me from the inception, and for challenging me to grow as a researcher. I thank my Supervisor, Dr. Jean Helms Mills for undertaking to supervise my dissertation prior to my acceptance into the program, and for her tireless support throughout this journey. I thank the other committee member, Dr. Christopher Hartt for the attention he paid to my work. To all the wonderful educators I encountered along my academic path at McKenzie Primary School (Guyana), Bishops High School (Guyana), St. Rose’s High School (Guyana) and York University, thank you for contributing to my learning. To the wonderful people I met along my professional life who have encouraged me to strive for professional excellence, especially Daniel Wallace (Danny), your words of wisdom have stuck with me. “Labor Omnia Vincit” (Hard work conquers all) Motto: Bishops High School, Georgetown, Guyana 3 ABSTRACT The International Development Bank and the Making of Postcolonial Subjectivities Marcelle Nolene Allen This thesis is about subjectivity. It is a critique and problematization of the concept of development, and takes a poststructural/postcolonial approach to examine how the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) shapes an underdeveloped subjectivity in the people of Latin America through representation (Said, 1978) and dependency (Rodney, 1972). I focus on the IDB’s influence on the people, in terms of identity work, making them subjects of underdevelopment, that is, people who are conditioned to see themselves as underdeveloped, and thus continuously seek financial assistance from international development organizations, resulting in increases in poverty and external debt. In applying a Foucauldian influenced approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) which looks at the “actors, relationships and practices that characterize the specific issue that is being studied” (Phillips & Hardy, 2002), this thesis examines how the discourses flowing from the communications of the four presidents who have led the IDB thus far, Felipe Herrera (1960-1971), Antonio Ortiz Mena (1971-1988), Enrique V. Iglesias (1988- 2005) and Luis Alberto Moreno (2005-present), work together with organizational practices which function as discursive practices (Foucault, 1972, 1980a, 1981) in shaping an underdeveloped mindset in the people of Latin America. This reduces, or at best, maintains the economic status quo of the countries because the discourses influence IDB’s organizational practices which in turn contribute to the discourses generally associated with Latin America. The features of an underdeveloped subjectivity (A. Escobar, 1995) are used to develop categories of analysis of the presidents’ communications. From these features, three main categories for analysis emerged: needy, ignorant, passive powerlessness. Examples from the IDB’s activities in Guyana are used to examine the effects of the discursive practices on Latin America. I show that development, as a modern conceptualization to reduce poverty and bring about economic advancement of countries, have not achieved the anticipated level of growth (see also Rostis, 2016; Rostis & Mills, 2007, on the role of the humanitarian organization in Third World countries); actually results in more poverty and underdevelopment; and at the same time influences the thinking and corresponding actions of the people of Latin America. August 30, 2017 4 Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 4 Chapter 1 - Introduction 1.1. Introduction 7 1.2. The Foucauldian Perspective of Subjectivity 14 1.3. Methodology 16 1.4. Contribution of Thesis 17 1.5. My personal location - Motivation for this research 21 1.6. Outline of the Chapters 25 Chapter 2 – Historical Context: The Americas, Latin America and Guyana 2.1. Introduction 27 2.2. The Social Construction of Latin America 32 2.3. Trajectories in Latin America’s Past 38 2.3.1. The Americas: European Arrival and Conquest 38 2.3.2. United States Independence; Demise of the Americas and 39 the Rise of USA Influence in Latin America 2.3.3. The Communist Threat and the Cold War 40 2.4. The Co-operative Republic of Guyana (Guyana) 41 2.4.1. European Colony: The Territories of Berbice, Demerara 42 and Essequibo 2.4.2. Independent Nation: Birth of the Independent Country Guyana 44 2.4.3. The Cooperative Republic 46 2.5. Identity Issues: The South American and Caribbean Racialized Guyanese 47 2.6. Chapter Summary 48 Chapter 3 – Latin America’s Bank: The Inter-American Development Bank 3.1. Introduction 50 3.2. Conceptualizing Development 52 3.3. Creating Latin America’s Bank (1889-1959) 54 3.4. Setting the Foundation – Felipe Herrera Era (1960-1971) 58 3.5. Era Marred by Tenuous Relationship with the USA – 60 Antonio Ortiz Mena Era (1971-1988) 3.6. Charting a New Course – Enrique Iglesias Era (1988-2005) 64 3.7. Redefining the IDB – Luis Alberto Moreno Era (2005 –Present) 66 3.8. Conflicting Identity of the IDB 68 3.9. The IDB and Guyana 69 3.10. Chapter Summary 70 Chapter 4 – Theoretical Frameworks 4.1. Introduction 72 4.2. The Poststructuralist Point of View 73 4.3. The Postcolonial Point of View 75 4.4. Discourse, Discursive Practice, Power and Knowledge 81 4.5. Constructing the Subject – Foucauldian Subjectivity 87 5 4.6. Chapter Summary 90 Chapter 5 - Methodology 5.1. Introduction 92 5.2. Discourse Analysis as Methodology 92 5.2.1. Critical Discourse Analysis 92 5.3. Using Content Analysis for Thematic Analysis 98 5.4. Access to Information 103 5.5. Data Collection 104 5.6. Interrogating the Data 108 5.7. Reflexivity 111 5.8. Chapter Summary 115 Chapter 6 – Thematic Analysis: Representation 6.1. Introduction 116 6.2. Needy Subjectivity 118 6.3. Ignorant Subjectivity 129 6.4. Passive Powerlessness Subjectivity 135 6.5. Chapter Summary 144 Chapter 7 – Normalization of Knowledge 7.1. Introduction 145 7.2. Organizational Practices of IDB which serve as Discursive Practices 146 7.2.1. Monitoring and Reporting 147 7.2.1.1. IDB Country Offices 147 7.2.1.2. Office of Evaluation and Oversight Project Missions Visits 149 7.2.1.3. Office of Institutional Integrity 151 7.2.2. Grouping of Countries 154 7.2.3. Loan Suspensions, Vetoes and Denials 157 7.2.4. Project Preparation and Loan Negotiation 158 7.2.5. Procurement of Goods and Services 161 7.2.6. Heavily Indebted Poor Country Initiative 162 7.3. Normalization of Knowledge: Lessons from Guyana 164 7.3.1. Guyana’s Loan Suspensions and Denials 164 7.3.2. Heavily Indebted Poor Country Guyana 170 7.3.3. Guyana’s Loan Portfolio 177 7.3.3.1. Citizens Security Sector Loan 179 7.3.3.2. Georgetown Solid Waste Management Program 182 7.3.3.3. Unserved Areas Electrification Program 183 7.4. Chapter Summary 184 Chapter 8 - Conclusion and Future Research 8.1. Introduction 186 8.2. Conclusions and Implications 186 8.3. Challenges 190 8.4. Future Research 192 References 194 6 Chapter 1 Introduction and Outline of the Dissertation The idea of development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape. Delusion and disappointment, failures and crimes have been the steady companions of development and they tell a common story: it did not work. Moreover, the historical conditions, which catapulted the idea into prominence, have vanished: development has become outdated. But above all, the hopes and desires, which made the idea fly, are now exhausted: development has grown obsolete. … Nevertheless, the ruin stands there and still dominates the scenery like a landmark. Though doubts are mounting and uneasiness is widely felt, development talk still pervades not only official declarations but even the language of grassroots movements (Sachs, 1992b, p. 1). 1.1. Introduction This thesis is about subjectivity. It is a critique and problematization of the concept of development. I show that development as a modern conceptualization to reduce poverty and bring about economic advancement of countries, actually results in more poverty and underdevelopment. ‘Underdevelopment’ here refers to economic regression. My research focuses on the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)1, and its influence on the thinking and corresponding actions of the people of Latin America, using examples from the IDB’s activities in Guyana as a case study. I focus on the IDB’s influence on the people, in terms of identity work, making them subjects of underdevelopment.