National Myth in Canada: Reproducing and Resisting Settler Colonialism at Memorial Sites by jason chalmers A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology University of Alberta © jason chalmers, 2019 ii Abstract This dissertation examines myth and memory in settler colonial contexts. In particular, it explores the way Canadians engage with national mythology at sites of genocide commemoration. It focuses on three national sites that together constitute a memorial network: the Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR), which opened in Winnipeg in 2014; the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which released its final report in 2015; and the National Holocaust Monument (NHM), which was unveiled in Ottawa in 2017. These sites are ideal case studies because each addresses the history and memory of the Holocaust or Residential Schools. The history and memory of genocide, and especially Indigenous genocide, is an integral part of settler colonialism and settler mythology. In this dissertation, I ask how sites of genocide memory reproduce – or resist – settler colonialism in Canada. I consider how memory functions as an aspect of settler colonialism and, especially, how Canadians use commemoration to reinscribe settler mythologies, identities, and relationships. Furthermore, I address how these memories can become sites of resistance that destabilise settler colonialism. My analysis is guided by the framework of difficult knowledge. The theory of difficult knowledge posits that learning occurs when marginalised narratives (difficult knowledge) disrupt dominant ones (lovely knowledge). This study considers how the CMHR, TRC, and NHM frame histories of genocide as difficult and/or lovely knowledge. I demonstrate that, while the NHM reproduces lovely knowledge, the TRC and CMHR both generate potentially difficult knowledge, albeit in limited ways. However, they use different techniques to do so: the TRC promotes a subversive counter-narrative whereas the CMHR encourages visitors to engage in the interpretation of national history. I contend that they are likely to produce difficult knowledge about Canadian history and myth when they engage with Indigenous peoples and perspectives. iii Furthermore, I argue that the framework of difficult knowledge can work as a critical – and potentially decolonising – research methodology. This study offers several findings regarding the relationship between settler colonialism and memorial networks. I argue that, while Holocaust memory and the memory of Residential Schools can – and do – inform one another, both memories emerge from and are shaped by settler mythology. In other words, settler colonialism plays a significant role in the production of genocide memory in Canada. Furthermore, I argue that the CMHR, TRC, and NHM are points of rupture that force Canadians to confront the myths and memories that undergird settler society. That is, these sites cultivate identity by enabling people to engage with, re-enact, and institutionalise myth and memory. At the same time, however, memorial sites are places of resistance that can disrupt national myth and destabilise settler colonialism. iv Preface This thesis is an original work by jason chalmers. It received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, project title “Reproducing and Resisting National Myth: Using Genocide Narratives to Transform Colonial Relationships in Canada,” study ID MS2_Pro00062807, 14 April 2016. A version of Chapter III has been published as “Settled Memories on Stolen Land: Settler Mythology at Canada’s National Holocaust Monument,” American Indian Quarterly 43, no. 4 (2019). v Acknowledgements Knowledge is created by people. This dissertation is a product of who I am and cannot be separated from myself, my experiences, or the people in my life. It is subjective and personal and I take responsibility for it. And while this responsibility is mine, I must acknowledge that many others have played a significant role in the production of this work. This dissertation is foremost a scholarly work, and many scholars have guided my hand in its writing. First, I extend thanks to my supervisor, Dominique Clément, who has ensured my success – both on this project and in my growth as a scholar – since my acceptance to the University of Alberta. I am very grateful to Keavy Martin and Ken Caine for the invaluable advice and support they offered at each stage of my studies. I thank Erica Lehrer and Yasmeen Abu-Laban for their insightful feedback on this project. While working on this project, I spent several days in Winnipeg and at the Canadian Museum for Human Rights. I thank the many staff members who I met during this time at the museum, including tour guides, librarians, curators, and attendants. I am especially grateful to Jodi Giesbrecht, Jeremy Maron, Karine Duhamel, and Julia Peristerakis. This research would not have been possible without considerable financial support. I am particularly thankful to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, which has provided generous funding in support of this project. I also thank the Department of Sociology and Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Alberta for their financial support. And, of course, nothing is possible without the spark of life. Thank you to my mother, Marlene, who has always nurtured my intellectual and creative pursuits. Thanks to my brother, Daniel, who provides me not only with friendship but also an ongoing supply of weirdness and vi superb music. A special thanks to my grandmother, Molly, whose experiences of suffering, resistance, and survival motivated me to conduct this research. And an impossibly huge thank you to Burcu – my best friend, lover, artistic collaborator, travel companion, and bumble bee. vii Table of Contents Abstract...........................................................................................................................................ii Preface............................................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................................v Table of Contents...........................................................................................................................vii List of Figures...............................................................................................................................viii List of Abbreviations......................................................................................................................ix Chapter I...........................................................................................................................................1 Introduction: Remembering Genocide in Canada Chapter II.......................................................................................................................................43 Literature Review: Difficult Knowledge and National Mythology in Settler Societies Chapter III......................................................................................................................................96 The National Holocaust Monument: Settled Memories on Stolen Land Chapter IV....................................................................................................................................145 The Truth and Reconciliation Commission: (Re)writing Canadian History Chapter V.....................................................................................................................................206 The Canadian Museum for Human Rights: Setting the Stage for Difficult Knowledge Chapter VI....................................................................................................................................263 Inside the Canadian Museum for Human Rights: A Difficult Encounter Chapter VII..................................................................................................................................322 Conclusion: Sites of Struggle References....................................................................................................................................338 viii List of Figures Figure 1: National Holocaust Monument (facing northeast), Ottawa ON. Photo by jason chalmers, 2018.................................................................................................................113 Figure 2: National Holocaust Monument (facing southwest), Ottawa ON. Photo by jason chalmers, 2018.................................................................................................................114 Figure 3: View of the Peace Tower, Ottawa ON. Photo by jason chalmers, 2018......................124 Figure 4: Canadian Museum for Human Rights and the Esplanade Riel, Winnipeg MB. Image courtesy of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, reproduced with permission......268 Figure 5: Indigenous Perspectives, Canadian Museum for Human Rights, Winnipeg MB. Image courtesy of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, reproduced with permission......277 Figure 6: “From Sorrow to Strength,” Canadian Journeys, Canadian Museum for Human Rights, Winnipeg MB. Photo by jason chalmers, 2016...................................................285 Figure 7: Alabaster ramps, Canadian Museum for Human Rights, Winnipeg MB. Photo by