Polish Cartographical Review Vol. 49, 2017, no. 4, pp. 177–186 DOI: 10.1515/pcr-2017-0013 WALDEMAR SPALLEK University of Wrocław, Institute of Geography and Regional Development Department of Geoinformatics and Cartography Wrocław, Poland [email protected] Evolution of longitude description system. Example of Polish school geographical atlases (1771−2012) Abstract. The evolution of the mathematical foundations of maps in school geographical atlases, especially in 19th and 20th century, was one of the elements of the perception of progress in cartography by the didactics of geography. The biggest changes, ongoing also today, concerned cartographic projections used to maps design. The evolution of the geographical coordinate system is a part of this process and the basis of the theory of cartographic projections. In the paper there are described changes concerning the location of the Prime Me- ridian and the method of the description of longitude − elements necessary for the construction of the grid of meridians and parallels. These changes are presented on the basis of analysis of 665 atlases, what means all editions of Polish school geographical atlases between 1771 and 2012 identified by the author. The evolution of the mathematical foundations of maps in Polish school atlases over more than two centuries is an example of assimilation of the newest trends and scientific researches that takes place between science and education. Keywords: school atlases, geographical coordinate system, the description of longitude, Prime Meridian 1. Introduction the lands known to Europeans covered the whole Earth, the geographical longitude was The geographical latitude is naturally measured still measured eastwards from the initial me- from the longest parallel, or the equator, towards ridian (usually Ferro), assigning its values from the poles. Moreover, during the spring and 0° to 360°. All great atlases of the world from autumn equinoxes the height of the sun above the 16th century to the 18th century contained the horizon complements the angle of geo- the maps with such a record of geographical graphical latitude to the right angle. In the case longitude. of geographical longitude, the initial meridian On the maps from the Polish school atlases, and the way of recording are the conditional in the course of over 240 years of their history, issues. In the second century AD, Ptolemy in in principle, two initial meridians were used to his work “Geography” used the Ferro Meridian determine the geographical longitude: Ferro to determine the geographical longitude of the and Greenwich. Occasionally, in only eight objects he listed. That meridian crossed the atlases and only on some maps, some other me- westernmost tip of the known lands, the island ridians appeared: the Paris Meridian was used of Ferro (Spanish: El Hierro) in the Canary Archi- in six atlases – in three atlases by J. Kośmiński pelago. Due to that fact, the geographical longi- from 1833−1840 [15 and 16]1, in the two-part tudes of all objects were measured eastwards atlas by I. Dzierżyński from the years of 1918 from the initial meridian. The printing of the and 1919 [7 and 8] and in two editions of the Ptolemy’s work in the fifteenth century had large atlas of the world by J.M. Bazewicz from contributed to the dissemination of the Ferro Meridian on maps. In the modern era, when, 1 Numbers in square brackets refer to the item numbers along with the great geographical discoveries, from the list of atlases at the end of the article. 178 Waldemar Spallek the years of 1918 and 1921 [6], but in one of miński [15] applied a double longitude nota- them, Podręczny atlas geograficzny (Geo- tion: according to the Paris Meridian (on the graphical hand atlas), 1908 [20], the Warsaw north map frame) and the Ferro Meridian (on Meridian was used. the south map frame), which was easy, on the condition that the difference between those 2. The dominance of two meridians: two meridians was 20°, and did not require to Ferro and Paris draw the additional meridional lines. On two historical maps: Grecja starożytna i Państwo The Paris Meridian was established in 1667 Rzymskie część wschodnia (Ancient Greece at the site of the future astronomical observa- and Roman State, the eastern part), J. Koś- tory in Paris, which was completed in 1671. miński made quite a serious mistake. On the Although the Ferro Meridian had been coming top frame, where the longitude values should out from the times of antiquity, in 1725 the be found according to the Paris Meridian, the commission, presided over by Guillaume Delisle, distances from Ferro were given. On the bottom assumed that the Ferro Meridian was conditio- frame, in accordance with the principle of nally located 20° west from the Paris Meridian. a twenty-degree difference between the meri- In practice, it turned out that the difference was dians of Ferro and Paris, the numerical values slightly larger (according to the later measure- were 20° higher. As a result, on the bottom ments it was set at 20° 23′ 9″), but on the maps frame you could find the geographical lati- an easier twenty-degree angular distance tudes for the Balkan peninsula with values of between those two meridians was used for 60°− 65°, which were as incorrect for one no- calculations. As a result, the Ferro Meridian tation, as for another one. The last atlases, in became a camouflaged Paris Meridian − “The which the longitude description according to meridian of Paris disguised”, as it was stated the Ferro Meridian was exclusively applied, by the French delegate to the Meridional Con- were Atlas przyrodniczo-geograficzny… (Natu- ference J. Janssen (International conference... ral and geographical atlas...) by O. Schneider 1884, p. 57). from the year of 1900 [22] and Szkolny atlas Both meridians had been widely used on the statystyczny Polski (School statistical atlas of maps for over 200 years. The Anglo-Saxon Poland) by I. Weinfeld, E. Szturm de Sztrem countries that never adopted the “French” Ferro, and J. Piekałkiewicz from the year of 1925 [25], using their own Greenwich Meridian (Inter- and therefore published more than 40 years national conference… 1884; M. Sirko 1999, after the International Meridional Conference. www.Paris 2015), were the exceptions. The hemispheres in the transverse projection, de- 3. The International Meridional picting the eastern and western hemispheres, Conference, 1884 were the basic world’s map forms up to the end of the 19th century. The earth was divided In the mid-nineteenth century, along with the into the hemispheres along the Ferro Meridian development of railways and sea shipping, the and its anti-meridian. Along with the introduc- lack of universal system of determining the geo- tion of the Greenwich Meridian, the meridian graphical longitude was getting an increasingly of 20° W and 160° E began to determine the serious problem. The size of geographical boundaries between two hemispheres, i.e. para- longitude was directly proportional to the time phrasing J. Janssen, who was quoted above, difference between two places on the Earth, the camouflaged meridian of Ferro and its anti- but the measurement of that difference re- -meridian. quired the standardization of time. For this Since the publication of the first Polish purpose, on the 1st of October, 1884, the dele- school geographical atlas in 1771, compiled gates from 25 then independent states met in by D. Szybiński [24], until 1875, that is until the Washington at the International Meridional end of publication of the first series of atlases Conference (including, among others, the King- by B. Kozenn [17], only the Ferro Meridian had dom of Hawaii and the United Kingdom of been substantially used to determine the geo- Sweden and Norway). The final act contained graphical longitude in the Polish school atlases. seven points, which were voted on the 22nd of Only in his historic-geographical atlas J. Koś- October, 1884. In the first of them, adopted Evolution of longitude description system. Example of Polish school geographical atlases... 179 unanimously, the need to adopt one standard tors using “Almanac” also began to determine meridian for longitude measurements around the location of their ships from that meridian. the world was approved. In the second point it That meridian was also left in the French was proposed to the delegates to make the translation of Maskelyne’ tables, even though meridian passing through the Greenwich Ob- the Paris Meridian was used on the others. In servatory to be the Prime Meridian. That pos- the early nineteenth century, the method of tulate was supported by 22 countries, with one measuring the geographical longitude using vote of opposition (Dominican Republic) and two a chronometer gained the advantage, but abstentions (France and Brazil). In the third sailors, in order to control their clocks, continued point, it was decided that the geographical lon- to use “Almanac” and the method of lunar dis- gitude from the Greenwich Meridian would be tances, calculating the longitude from Green- count in two directions to 180°. In addition, it wich (D. Sobel 1998). In the second half of the was determined that the eastern longitude 19th century, the navigation maps with the would be marked as positive and the western Greenwich Prime Meridian covered all the navi- one as negative. Interestingly, the proposals gable waters of the world, and they were used contained in the third point had caused the on 65% of ships (table 1). Moreover, a year greatest controversy. It was supported by 14 de- before the Meridional Conference, on the 18th legations, five countries were against (Italy, Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Table 1. Number and total tonnage of vessels using Spain) and six abstained (the Austria-Hungary, the navigational charts with the most commonly Germany, Brazil, Dominican Republic, France used prime meridians in 1879 and Turkey).