THE VALUE OF THE GLOBAL MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORK IN THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY, ENDANGERED SHARKS Sara Eckert September 2013 "It is a curious situation that the sea, from which life first arose, should now be threatened by the activities of one form of that life. But the sea, though changed in a sinister way, will continue to exist: the threat is rather to life itself." - Rachel Carson ©Craig O’Connell A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science and the Diploma of Imperial College London DECLARATION OF OWN WORK I declare that this thesis The Value of the Global Marine Protected Area Network in the Conservation of Migratory, Endangered Sharks is entirely my own work and that where material could be construed as the work of others, it is fully cited and referenced, and/or with appropriate acknowledgement given. Signature: Name: Sara Eckert Supervisors: Ms. Fiona Llewellyn Dr. Chris Yesson Dr. Matt Gollock 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ................................................................................................................ 5 FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................................................ 5 TABLES .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... 6 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 WORD COUNT .................................................................................................................................................. 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 9 1.1. OCEAN CONSERVATION ........................................................................................................................................ 9 1.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ...................................................................................... 9 1.3. THE USE OF MPAS IN THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES .................................................. 10 1.4. AIMS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................... 12 2.1. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ............................................................................................................................ 12 2.1.1. WHAT IS A MARINE PROTECTED AREA? ...................................................................................................... 12 2.2. CURRENT COVERAGE OF MPAS ...................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.1. GLOBAL MPA DATABASE .................................................................................................................................. 14 2.3. LEVELS OF MPA PROTECTION ........................................................................................................................ 14 2.3.1. NO-TAKE MPAS .................................................................................................................................................. 14 2.3.2. MPA ZONING ........................................................................................................................................................ 15 2.4. CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH MPAS ....................................................................................................... 15 2.4.1. DESIGNATION EFFORTS ..................................................................................................................................... 15 2.4.2. ENFORCEMENT ..................................................................................................................................................... 16 2.4.3. THE COST OF MPAS ........................................................................................................................................... 16 2.5. THE CONSERVATION OF SHARKS .................................................................................................................... 17 2.5.1. CURRENT STATUS AND THREATS ................................................................................................................... 17 2.5.2. SHARK DISTRIBUTIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 18 2.5.3. PELAGIC MPAS .................................................................................................................................................... 18 2.5.4. MIGRATORY SHARKS .......................................................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 3: METHODS .............................................................................................................................. 21 3.1. GATHERING NO-TAKE MPA DATA ................................................................................................................ 21 3.2. SHARK DATA ........................................................................................................................................................ 22 3.2.1. SHARK DISTRIBUTION DATA ........................................................................................................................... 22 3.2.2. MIGRATION DATA ............................................................................................................................................... 23 3.3. MAPPING DATA ................................................................................................................................................... 24 3.3.1. SHARKS AND MPAS ............................................................................................................................................ 24 3.3.2. SHARK SPECIES RICHNESS................................................................................................................................ 24 3.3.3. MPA MAPS ............................................................................................................................................................ 24 3.4. FAO SHARK CATCH DATA ................................................................................................................................ 25 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ................................................................................................................................ 26 4.1. GLOBAL MPA COVERAGE ................................................................................................................................. 26 4.1.1. WDPA MPA COVERAGE ................................................................................................................................... 26 4.1.2. GLOBAL NO-TAKE MPAS .................................................................................................................................. 28 4.1.3. THE LARGEST MPAS .......................................................................................................................................... 28 4.1.4. MAPPING GLOBAL MPA COVERAGE .............................................................................................................. 28 4.1.5. MPAS AND EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONES (EEZS) .................................................................................. 29 4.2. SHARKS AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ................................................................................................... 29 3 4.2.1. MPA COVERAGE FOR SHARK DISTRIBUTIONS ............................................................................................ 29 4.2.2. SHARK SIGHTINGS ............................................................................................................................................... 30 4.2.3. SPECIES RICHNESS .............................................................................................................................................. 32 4.3. FISHING EFFORT AND MARINE PROTECTED AREA COVERAGE ............................................................... 32 4.3.1. FAO MAJOR FISHING AREA COVERAGE ........................................................................................................ 32 4.3.2. FAO CATCH DATA ............................................................................................................................................... 36 4.4. CASE STUDY: WHITE SHARK MIGRATION ................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................