ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING Principles and Practice ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING Principles and Practice Patrick C. Kangas LEWIS PUBLISHERS A CRC Press Company Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kangas, Patrick C. Ecological engineering: principles and practice / Patrick Kangas. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-599-1 (alk. paper) 1. Ecological engineering. I. Title. GE350.K36 2003 628—dc21 2003051689 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-599-1 Library of Congress Card Number 2003051689 ISBN 0-203-48654-4 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-59139-9(Adobe eReader Format) Dedication I would like to dedicate this book to my ecology professors at Kent State University: G.D. Cooke, R. Mack, L.P. Orr, and D. Waller; at the University of Oklahoma: M. Chartock, M. Gilliland, P.G. Risser, and F. Sonlietner; and at the Uni- versity of Florida: E.S. Deevey, J. Ewel, K. Ewel, L.D. Har- ris, A.E. Lugo, and H.T. Odum. Preface This text is intended as a graduate level introduction to the new field of ecological engineering. It is really a book about ecosystems and how they can be engineered to solve various environmental problems. The Earth’s biosphere contains a tremen- dous variety of existing ecosystems, and ecosystems that never existed before are being created by mixing species and geochemical processes together in new ways. Many different applications are utilizing these old and new ecosystems but with little unity, yet. Ecological engineering is emerging as the discipline that offers unification with principles for understanding and for designing all ecosystem-scale applications. In this text three major principles (the energy signature, self-organiza- tion, and preadaptation) are suggested as the foundation for the new discipline. H. T. Odum, the founder of ecological engineering, directly inspired the writing of this book through his teaching. An important goal was to review and summarize his research, which provides a conceptual framework for the discipline. Odum’s ideas are found throughout the book because of their originality, their explanatory power, and their generality. Acknowledgments This book benefited greatly from the direct and indirect influences of the author’s colleagues in the Biological Resources Engineering Department at the University of Maryland. They helped teach an ecologist some engineering. Art Johnson and Fred Wheaton, in particular, offered models in the form of their own bioengineering texts. Strong credit for the book goes to the editors at CRC Press, especially Sara Kreisman, Samar Haddad, Matthew Wolff, and Brian Kenet, whose direction brought the book to completion. Kimberly Monahan assisted through managing correspon- dence and computer processing. Joan Breeze produced the original energy circuit diagrams. David Tilley completed the diagrams and provided important insights on industrial ecology, indoor air treatment, and other topics. Special acknowledgment is due to the author’s students who shared research efforts in ecological engineering. Their work is included throughout the text. David Blersch went beyond this contri- bution in drafting many of the figures. Finally, sincere appreciation goes to the author’s wife, Melissa Kangas, for her patience and help during the years of work needed to complete the book. Author Patrick Kangas, Ph.D. is a systems ecologist with interests in ecological engi- neering and tropical sustainable development. He received his B.S. degree from Kent State University in biology, his M.S. from the University of Oklahoma in botany and ecology, and his Ph.D. degree in environmental engineering sciences from the University of Florida. After graduating, Dr. Kangas took a position in the biology department of Eastern Michigan University and taught there for 11 years. In 1990 he moved to the University of Maryland where he is coordinator of the Natural Resources Management Program and associate professor in the Biological Resources Engineering Department. He has conducted research in Puerto Rico, Brazil, and Belize and has led travel–study programs throughout the neotropics. Dr. Kangas has published more than 50 papers, book chapters, and contract reports on a variety of environmental subjects. Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 A Controversial Name ......................................................................................... 1 Relationship to Ecology....................................................................................... 4 Relationship to Engineering................................................................................. 9 Design of New Ecosystems ............................................................................... 13 Principles of Ecological Engineering ................................................................ 16 Energy Signature ...................................................................................... 18 Self-Organization...................................................................................... 19 Preadaptation ............................................................................................ 22 Strategy of the Book.......................................................................................... 24 Chapter 2 Treatment Wetlands....................................................................... 25 Introduction........................................................................................................ 25 Strategy of the Chapter...................................................................................... 25 Sanitary Engineering.......................................................................................... 26 An Audacious Idea ............................................................................................ 33 The Treatment Wetland Concept....................................................................... 39 Biodiversity and Treatment Wetlands ............................................................... 44 Microbes ................................................................................................... 45 Higher Plants ............................................................................................ 46 Protozoans................................................................................................. 49 Mosquitoes................................................................................................ 50 Muskrats ................................................................................................... 52 Aquaculture Species ................................................................................. 55 Coprophagy and Guanotrophy.................................................................. 56 Parallel Evolution of Decay Equations.............................................................. 57 Ecology as the Source of Inspiration in Design................................................ 60 Algal Turf Scrubbers ................................................................................ 61 Living Machines ....................................................................................... 63 Chapter 3 Soil Bioengineering....................................................................... 69 Introduction........................................................................................................ 69 Strategy of the Chapter...................................................................................... 72 The Geomorphic Machine ................................................................................. 72 Concepts of Soil Bioengineering ....................................................................... 78 Deep Ecology and Soft Engineering: Exploring the Possible Relationship of Soil Bioengineering to Eastern Religions...........................................