Writing/Righting Truths Across Borders: Learning from Transnational Peoples’ Journalism and Politics by Shayna Gilana Plaut A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Educational Studies) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) September 2014 © Shayna Gilana Plaut, 2014 ii Abstract My dissertation explores how journalists who self-identify as “transnational” shape their journalism to make human rights claims that trouble, open up and go beyond the nation-state. The project is a multi-sited, ethnographic, comparative case study of journalism education among two different transnational peoples: Romani/Gypsy and Saami (the Indigenous peoples in the current states of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia). Drawing upon 45 interviews with journalists and journalism educators, my research suggests there are two distinct strategies in how transnational peoples’ journalism is conceived, taught and assessed. These strategies influence and are influenced by larger socio-political contexts: the Saami media work within an Indigenous rights framework; their goal is to engage with journalism as a form of self-determination. This differs from Romani media programs, which are funded by non-state donors who aim to use Romani media as a form of claiming citizenship. These citizenship claims are both within a specific state as well as within Europe. In short, the political, economic and cultural contexts shape the journalism, and the journalism in turn shapes the politics. Although the differences are significant, both transnational groups recognized the power of journalism in agenda setting within, between and across borders. Through the framing of information in particular ways, journalists, editors and the media outlets, as well as the funding sources for this journalism, were all engaged in a form of agenda setting (Carpenter, 2007; 2009) and productive power (Barnett & Duvall, 2005). My findings indicate that a unique feature of transnational peoples’ journalism is recognizing and operationalizing power beyond that of the state; another contribution is a more robust understanding of objectivity in journalism – one that demonstrates how journalists can be credible, without pretending to be neutral. These are all important contributions to reimagining human rights advocacy beyond current discussions of transnational advocacy which still often privilege the state and tends to pay scant attention to iii journalists themselves. Learning from transnational peoples who are creating, teaching, and participating in journalism education in its many places, forms, and media allows us to make more sound connections between human rights and journalism. iv Preface This dissertation is an original intellectual product of the author, Shayna Plaut. The fieldwork reported in Chapters 4 and 5 was covered by UBC Ethics Certificate H11-03023 (originally approved December 15, 2011) and H11 – 00971 (originally approved on May, 19, 2011), respectively. Significant portions of Chapter 2 and a bit of Chapter 6 were published as a part of the chapter, “Fact Based Storytelling or Fact Based Activism: Tensions, strategies and next steps of human rights and journalism,” in Anja Mijhr and Mark Gibney (Eds) Sage Handbook of Human Rights. Sage Publications (Plaut, 2014). I am the sole author. A version of Chapter 5 was published in the journal Nordicom Review, “Nation building not ‘resistance radio’: Self determination, the state & Saami media.” Volume 35, No. 1, pp. 81-97. I was the sole researcher and sole author. All images in Chapters 4 and 5 are reproduced with permission of the editor and/or curator and noted as such in the text. v Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Preface............................................................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ viii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix Glossary .......................................................................................................................................... x Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ xi Chapter 1 — Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 Goals and Structure of the Project .............................................................................................. 4 Why Transnational Peoples? ....................................................................................................... 8 The Specific Cases: Romani and Saami Journalism, Journalists, and Journalism Education .. 12 My Places and Perspectives in this Research ........................................................................... 15 Structure of the Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 2 — Theorizing the Borders of Journalism and Journalism Beyond Borders ................ 23 What is Journalism? .................................................................................................................. 25 Three Different Approaches to Objectivity ............................................................................... 31 Framing, Counter-Framing, and Framing Contests .................................................................. 36 The Contribution of International Relations Theory ................................................................ 38 The (Neglected) Role of Journalism in Constructivist International Relations Theory ........... 42 Where is the Power in the Story? .............................................................................................. 43 A Transnational Journalistic Standpoint ................................................................................... 46 Chapter 3 — The ABCs—From the Arctic to the Balkans to Central Europe: How I Researched Transnational Peoples’ Journalism Education .............................................................................. 48 Why Comparative Case Studies? .............................................................................................. 48 Brief Overview of Case Selection......................................................................................... 50 Significantly Different Cases ................................................................................................ 52 Case Selection ........................................................................................................................... 52 Why Romani Journalists? ..................................................................................................... 58 My Background with Romani Media ................................................................................... 59 Why Saami Journalists? ........................................................................................................ 60 My Background with Saami Journalism ............................................................................... 61 A Potential Third Case? Migrant Voice: The Road Not Taken ................................................. 62 What I Bring to this Research ................................................................................................... 64 The Who, What, Where, Why, and How of Interviewing and Multi-Sited Fieldwork ............. 65 Negotiating Gatekeepers and Respectful Yet Critical Research ........................................... 66 Going “Into the Field” with Saami Journalism ................................................................. 69 Narrowing My Approach to Romani Journalism: Focus on Open Society Foundations .. 71 Reflections on My Different Dynamics within Interviews ................................................... 74 vi Locating and Analyzing Transcripts and Primary Source Documents ..................................... 75 Chapter 4 — “A (Romani) Journalist is (Just) a Journalist!”: Roma, the State, and Europe— Crafting Inclusion and Citizenship ............................................................................................... 78 Structure of the Chapter ............................................................................................................ 79 The Who, What, Where, When, and How of Roma in Europe ................................................. 81 The State, Roma, and the Emerging Project of Democracy: A Brief Overview ....................... 84 Combating Romani “Culture Talk” ........................................................................................... 86 The Context: History and Geography of Journalism in Central and Eastern Europe ............... 88 Minority Media as a Right .................................................................................................... 90 Why the “National Minority Rights” Model