The Kaåka and the Northern Frontier of Ñatti by Nebahat ‹lgi Gerçek A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Near Eastern Studies) in the University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Gary M. Beckman, Chair Professor Piotr A. Michalowski Professor Henry T. Wright Emeritus Professor Norman Yoffee Associate Professor Benjamin W. Fortson © Nebahat Ilgi Gercek 2012 To my parents for their unceasing love and support ! ii! Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Professor Gary M. Beckman, for his mentorship, hospitality, and encouragement. Without his guidance and feedback I could not have completed this project. I also thank Professor Piotr Michalowski, for being a constant source of inspiration and for his guidance at critical junctures in my carreer. I thank Professor Yoffee for his scholarship and instruction, especially during the initial phases of my graduate studies. My thanks also go to the other members of my committee, Professors Henry Wright and Benjamin Fortson, for their careful reading of my manuscript and valuable feedback. I could not have asked for a more responsive or hospitable group with whom to work. I am deeply thankful to the Department of Near Eastern Studies, Rackham Graduate School, the International Institute, and Barbour Scholarship for generously supporting my project. I am greatly indebted to Professor Gernot Wilhelm. The year I spent in Würzburg studying with him was crucial for the conception of my dissertation. In this vein, I also thank Dr. Guido Kryszat and Professor Helmut Novicki with whom I was fortunate enough to work. For years of friendship and support I thank Sara Feldman, Christine Efta, Libby Boulter, Gina Konstantopoulos, Tayfun Bilgin, Nilufer Bilgin, Stephanie Bolz, Helen ! iii! Dixon, Anne Kreps, Özgen Felek, Derek Mancini-Lander, Noah Gardiner, Nancy Linthicum, Yasmeen Hanoosh, Sofia Rosenberg, and Vika Gardner. I would also like to thank the Near Eastern Studies staff, Lisa Michelin, Leea Gunder, Wendy Burr, Angela Beskow, and Margaret Cassazza. All of this would not have been possible without my family, epsecially my parents Æen and Haluk Evrim, who have always showed the keenest interest in my studies and have supported me in every way imaginable. I am indebted also to my mother-in-law Lale Gerçek, for her support and friendship, especially during the final phases of my studies. I would finally like to thank my husband Cinar Gerçek, for his love, patience, and support. You make everything worthwhile. ! ! iv! Table of Contents Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii! Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii! List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... viii! Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1! Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1! Present state of research .............................................................................................................. 2! Hittite records pertaining to the Kaåka ........................................................................................ 5! Chronological distribution of sources ..................................................................................... 5! Middle Hittite Kaåka Corpus ................................................................................................... 6! An excursus on the archaeology of the Black Sea Region ........................................................ 11! Geographical setting and environment .................................................................................. 13! Kaåka homelands and material culture .................................................................................. 15! Hittite-Kaåka frontier ............................................................................................................ 21! Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 25! A note on terminology and chronology ..................................................................................... 25! Chapter Two: Who were the Kaåka? ................................................................................ 27! Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 27! Kaåka in previous scholarship ................................................................................................... 30! The Kaåka name, “Kaåka men,” and “Kaåka Land” ................................................................. 32! Economic organization and way of life ..................................................................................... 37! Pastoral nomads in Hittite sources ........................................................................................ 37! Kaåka pastoralists .................................................................................................................. 38! “Swineherds and weavers” .................................................................................................... 41! Mobility ................................................................................................................................. 42! Agriculture ............................................................................................................................ 45! Kaåka towns/settlements ....................................................................................................... 46! Mountain dwellers? ............................................................................................................... 48! Social structure and political organization ................................................................................ 49! The Hittite word for tribe? .................................................................................................... 52! Kinship terminology .............................................................................................................. 54! Kaåka culture ............................................................................................................................. 55! Kaåka language ..................................................................................................................... 55! Religion ................................................................................................................................. 56! Barbarians? ............................................................................................................................ 57! Summary and conclusions ..................................................................................................... 60! ! v! Chapter Three: Hittite-Kaåka Interactions and the Northern Frontier of Ñatti ................. 63! Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 63! Historical overview ............................................................................................................... 64! Frontiers in theoretical perspective ....................................................................................... 66! Frontiers in Hittitology .......................................................................................................... 67! A note on the historical geography of the Black Sea Region ................................................ 68! The northern frontier of Ñatti .................................................................................................... 70! Hittite interests in the north ................................................................................................... 70! The frontier in official discourse ........................................................................................... 72! The frontier as a distinct administrative category ................................................................. 73! The formation and features of the Hittite-Kaåka frontier ...................................................... 75! Hittite-Kaåka interactions in the Early Empire Period (c. 1400-1350 BCE) ............................ 79! Early Empire Period frontier policy ...................................................................................... 83! War and peace ....................................................................................................................... 85! Hostages ................................................................................................................................ 88! Economic interactions ........................................................................................................... 89! Hittite-Kaåka interactions and frontier policy during the Empire Period (1350-1200 BCE) ... 89! Empire Period frontier policy ................................................................................................ 91! Ñattuåili III ...........................................................................................................................