Collingridge, Vanessa Jane (2017) Mapping myths: the fantastic geography of the Great Southern Continent, 1760-1777. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/8601/ Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten:Theses http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Mapping Myths: The Fantastic Geography of the Great Southern Continent, 1760-1777 Vanessa Jane Collingridge Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Geographical and Earth Sciences University of Glasgow November 2017 2 Figure 1. Guillaume le Testu: ‘Terre Australle’ (1555) Section from his 56-map Atlas of the World showing a fantastic representation of the Southern Continent. Replete with (imagined or misplaced) flora and fauna, hunters and warriors, and with geographical features and toponyms, this map gives the strong impression that the region was already partly ‘known’ through experience or reasoning – a belief that persisted into the second half of the eighteenth century and underpinned the first and second voyages of Captain James Cook. 3 Abstract This research explores the (re)production and circulation of geographical knowledge about the conjectured Great Southern Continent – one of the most enduring geographical ideas in the western world despite the fact that it did not exist, other than in books, maps and the human mind. The study examines how the fantastic Continent managed to survive - and even thrive – as an imaginary in Britain despite the absence of any hard evidence. The selected timeframe 1760-1777 covers a period of considerable flux in terms of cultural, imperial and global identities, witnessing a rapid expansion in geographical knowledge, provided in part by the voyages of Captain James Cook and the unprecedented rise of the British popular press who deliver this ‘news’ to the public. Using the twin archives of The Gentleman’s Magazine and daily, tri-weekly and weekly newspapers, this study critically examines the ways in which the landscapes of the Continent were variously imagined, represented and understood by the British public over the final seventeen years of the its ‘life’, ‘death’ and ‘re-birth’ as the Antarctic. Specifically, it interrogates the mechanisms used by the press to (re)produce a public imaginary for the emerging South, and the roles played by the Continent in mid-to-late eighteenth century polite society. The thesis shows how the Continent’s status as an enduring geographical myth renders it an important touchstone in an imaginative global cartography held by the eighteenth century British public. It illustrates how external spaces are powerful constructs for internal identities and epistemologies. The ultimate revelation that this provincea aurea was a barren wilderness of sea and ice triggered arguably one the most important cultural shifts in the Western geographical and imperial imagination since the discovery of the Americas – and, the thesis contends, provided an important proving ground in the battle between traditional scholarly speculation and the empiricism characterising the new scientific method. 4 Acknowledgements This work represents at least a decade of communication with some of the most brilliant and generous scholars in the fields of geography, history, cartography, archaeology, polar and literary studies. Special mention must go to Peter Barber - (allegedly) “retired” Head of Maps at the British Library, Nick Millea of the Bodleian Library, independent map scholar Chet Van Duzer, John Moore at the University of Glasgow library, John Robson – author and map librarian at the University of Waikato, Andrew Cook - late of the British Library’s India Office, Robert Headland at SPRI, Catherine Delano Smith of Imago Mundi, and Edinburgh’s Carolyn Anderson for their support, advice and friendship. Professor Emeritus Glyndwr Williams provided not only lunch and stimulating conversations but books, articles, support and the inspiration for this work’s particular focus on eighteenth century newspapers; the genius and infectious enthusiasm of Dr Alison Sheridan – Principal Curator of Early Prehistory at National Museums of Scotland – transported me from a soggy Achnabreck to a deep appreciation of concepts of physical/metaphysical liminality and zones of transformation; Professors Julia Kuehn and Douglas Kerr from University of Hong Kong’s Department of English provided endless literary insight, reference materials, moral support and treasured friendship; Dr Doris Eikhof and Dr Jo Norcup have also been critical in sustaining a sense of humour and perspective amidst the travails of juggling research, professional work and family; Cliff Thornton, Ian Boreham and Alwyn Peel of the Captain Cook Society have been unstinting in their contributions over my years of research into maritime exploration; similarly, my deep appreciation to Cecilia Fattorini for use of the exquisite image of her embodied cartographic art, to Professor Chris Warhurst, Professor Rowena Murray and Dr Morag Thow for their structural advice, and Drs Ann Grand and Larissa Kempenaar for their help with the final formatting of the thesis. Thanks to my supervisors at the University of Glasgow – Dr Jim Hansom (who encouraged me to engage in this mission) and Professor Hayden Lorimer – for staying the course. Finally, deep gratitude to my friends and family for sharing what, at times, seemed like an endless journey. 5 “I declare that, except where explicit reference is made to the contribution of others, that this dissertation is the result of my own work and has not been submitted for any other degree at the University of Glasgow or any other institution.” Printed Name: _Vanessa Jane Collingridge Signature: _________________________ 6 A legend may not be a record of fact, but the existence of the legend itself is a fact, and requires explanation.1 Figure 2. Cecilia Fattorini: ‘As If Anything Here Belongs to You’ (2009) Cecilia Fattorini’s 2009 work questions the way the West appropriates and embodies distant territories culturally, economically and militarily – arguably, a situation that has resonance in eighteenth century Europe’s race to discover and take possession of the Great Southern Continent. Although the map here depicts Pakistan and surrounding regions, she describes the piece as representing in general “man’s hubristic dominion over the planet”. Oil and silver leaf on mapping.2 1 E.A. Freeman, cited by Geoffrey Ashe, Land to the West: St Brendan’s Voyage to America (London; Collins, 1961) p49, R.A. Skelton, Looking at an Early Map, Annual Public Lecture at the University of Kansas, 1962 (Lawrence, KA: University of Kansas Libraries, 1965), p28. 2 Profound thanks to artist Cecilia Fattorini for the use of this image and description (personal email, 12/11/2014). 7 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 List of Figures 11 Preface 13 Chapter 1. Introduction 15 Geographical Context 15 Research Aims 21 Research Objectives 21 Research Themes 23 Relevance: the evidence from Critical Interpretative Literatures 26 Structure of thesis 30 Chapter 2. Literature Review 33 Introduction 33 Traditional Histories of Continental Beliefs in the Eighteenth Century 34 Journeys within Enlightenment Science and Eighteenth Century Geography 39 Journeys within Map History 46 Journeys into Print 55 Journeys within the History and Philosophy of Maritime Science 61 Journeys within the Monstrous Realms of Myth and Magic 69 Locating Ourselves in Time and Space 75 Conclusion 76 Chapter 3. Context and Methodology 78 Chapter Structure 78 Contextual Background: Defining ‘the public’ 78 8 The Eighteenth-Century Press 81 Literacy 86 British Periodicals under consideration 88 The Gentleman’s Magazine in the Eighteenth Century 91 Newspapers in the Eighteenth Century 99 Review of Research Aims 104 Research Methodology: The Burney Collection 105 Research Methodology: Chapter 4. 108 Research Methodology: Chapter 5. 114 Chapter 4. Public Perception of the Great Southern Continent through The Gentleman’s Magazine, 1760-1777 121 Introduction 122 Structure of Chapter 4 123 The production of popular knowledge about the Great Southern Continent: an analysis of The Gentleman’s Magazine, 1760-1777. 124 1. Continental Conjectures and Credibility 124 2. Cultures of Curiosity, Credibility and the Fashion for Discovery 133 3. Battles for Control over Knowledge and Space 140 4. Making Sense of the ‘Other’: The Transformation of Mai 152 5. The Thirst for New Geographical Knowledge about the South 154 6. The Construction of a New Southern Imaginary: Ice and Transformation 157 7. Mapping the ‘New’ South: The Triumph of Science 172 8. Making Sense of the New World: Curiosity, Utility and Re-conceptualisation 175 9. The (Re) Construction of Geographical Knowledge: validation & resolution 180 10. The Final Word: Cook’s Resolution Journal 187 9 Summary 190 Objective 1: Representation and understanding of the Continent in The Gentleman’s Magazine, 1760-1777. 191 Objective 2: Mechanisms of Continental knowledge (re)production, 1760-1777.