Fifth Edition, last update March 29, 2009 2 Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume III – Semiconductors By Tony R. Kuphaldt Fifth Edition, last update March 29, 2009 i c 2000-2011, Tony R. Kuphaldt This book is published under the terms and conditions of the Design Science License. These terms and conditions allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of this document by the general public. The full Design Science License text is included in the last chapter. As an open and collaboratively developed text, this book is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the Design Science License for more details. Available in its entirety as part of the Open Book Project collection at: openbookproject.net/electricCircuits PRINTING HISTORY • First Edition: Printed in June of 2000. Plain-ASCII illustrations for universal computer readability. • Second Edition: Printed in September of 2000. Illustrations reworked in standard graphic (eps and jpeg) format. Source files translated to Texinfo format for easy online and printed publication. • Third Edition: Printed in January 2002. Source files translated to SubML format. SubML is a simple markup language designed to easily convert to other markups like LATEX, HTML, or DocBook using nothing but search-and-replace substitutions. • Fourth Edition: Printed in December 2002. New sections added, and error corrections made, since third edition. • Fith Edition: Printed in July 2007. New sections added, and error corrections made, format change. ii Contents 1 AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES 1 1.1 From electric to electronic ................................ 1 1.2 Active versus passive devices .............................. 3 1.3 Amplifiers ......................................... 3 1.4 Amplifier gain ....................................... 6 1.5 Decibels .......................................... 8 1.6 Absolute dB scales .................................... 14 1.7 Attenuators ........................................ 16 2 SOLID-STATE DEVICE THEORY 27 2.1 Introduction ........................................ 27 2.2 Quantum physics ..................................... 28 2.3 Valence and Crystal structure ............................. 41 2.4 Band theory of solids ................................... 47 2.5 Electrons and “holes” ................................... 50 2.6 The P-N junction ..................................... 55 2.7 Junction diodes ...................................... 58 2.8 Bipolar junction transistors ............................... 60 2.9 Junction field-effect transistors ............................. 65 2.10 Insulated-gate field-effect transistors (MOSFET) .................. 70 2.11 Thyristors ......................................... 73 2.12 Semiconductor manufacturing techniques ...................... 75 2.13 Superconducting devices ................................. 80 2.14 Quantum devices ..................................... 83 2.15 Semiconductor devices in SPICE ............................ 91 Bibliography ........................................... 93 3 DIODES AND RECTIFIERS 97 3.1 Introduction ........................................ 98 3.2 Meter check of a diode .................................. 103 3.3 Diode ratings ....................................... 107 3.4 Rectifier circuits ..................................... 108 3.5 Peak detector ....................................... 115 3.6 Clipper circuits ...................................... 117 iii iv CONTENTS 3.7 Clamper circuits ..................................... 121 3.8 Voltage multipliers .................................... 123 3.9 Inductor commutating circuits ............................. 130 3.10 Diode switching circuits ................................. 132 3.11 Zener diodes ........................................ 135 3.12 Special-purpose diodes .................................. 143 3.13 Other diode technologies ................................. 163 3.14 SPICE models ....................................... 163 Bibliography ........................................... 171 4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 173 4.1 Introduction ........................................ 174 4.2 The transistor as a switch ................................ 176 4.3 Meter check of a transistor ............................... 179 4.4 Active mode operation .................................. 183 4.5 The common-emitter amplifier ............................. 189 4.6 The common-collector amplifier ............................. 202 4.7 The common-base amplifier ............................... 210 4.8 The cascode amplifier .................................. 218 4.9 Biasing techniques .................................... 222 4.10 Biasing calculations ................................... 235 4.11 Input and output coupling ................................ 247 4.12 Feedback .......................................... 256 4.13 Amplifier impedances .................................. 263 4.14 Current mirrors ...................................... 264 4.15 Transistor ratings and packages ............................ 269 4.16 BJT quirks ......................................... 271 Bibliography ........................................... 278 5 JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 281 5.1 Introduction ........................................ 281 5.2 The transistor as a switch ................................ 283 5.3 Meter check of a transistor ............................... 286 5.4 Active-mode operation .................................. 288 5.5 The common-source amplifier – PENDING ...................... 297 5.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING ...................... 298 5.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING ....................... 298 5.8 Biasing techniques – PENDING ............................ 298 5.9 Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING .................... 299 5.10 JFET quirks – PENDING ................................ 299 6 INSULATED-GATE FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 301 6.1 Introduction ........................................ 301 6.2 Depletion-type IGFETs ................................. 302 6.3 Enhancement-type IGFETs – PENDING ....................... 311 6.4 Active-mode operation – PENDING .......................... 311 CONTENTS v 6.5 The common-source amplifier – PENDING ...................... 312 6.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING ...................... 312 6.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING ....................... 312 6.8 Biasing techniques – PENDING ............................ 312 6.9 Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING .................... 312 6.10 IGFET quirks – PENDING ............................... 313 6.11 MESFETs – PENDING ................................. 313 6.12 IGBTs ........................................... 313 7 THYRISTORS 317 7.1 Hysteresis ......................................... 317 7.2 Gas discharge tubes ................................... 318 7.3 The Shockley Diode .................................... 322 7.4 The DIAC ......................................... 329 7.5 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) ......................... 329 7.6 The TRIAC ........................................ 341 7.7 Optothyristors ....................................... 344 7.8 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) ........................... 344 7.9 The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS) .......................... 350 7.10 Field-effect-controlled thyristors ............................ 352 Bibliography ........................................... 354 8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 355 8.1 Introduction ........................................ 355 8.2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers ........................ 356 8.3 The ”operational” amplifier ............................... 360 8.4 Negative feedback .................................... 366 8.5 Divided feedback ..................................... 369 8.6 An analogy for divided feedback ............................ 372 8.7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion .......................... 378 8.8 Averager and summer circuits ............................. 380 8.9 Building a differential amplifier ............................ 382 8.10 The instrumentation amplifier ............................. 384 8.11 Differentiator and integrator circuits ......................... 385 8.12 Positive feedback ..................................... 388 8.13 Practical considerations ................................. 392 8.14 Operational amplifier models .............................. 408 8.15 Data ............................................ 413 9 PRACTICAL ANALOG SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS 415 9.1 ElectroStatic Discharge ................................. 415 9.2 Power supply circuits – INCOMPLETE ........................ 420 9.3 Amplifier circuits – PENDING ............................. 422 9.4 Oscillator circuits – INCOMPLETE .......................... 422 9.5 Phase-locked loops – PENDING ............................ 424 9.6 Radio circuits – INCOMPLETE ............................. 424 vi CONTENTS 9.7 Computational circuits .................................. 433 9.8 Measurement circuits – INCOMPLETE ........................ 455 9.9 Control circuits – PENDING .............................. 456 Bibliography ........................................... 456 10 ACTIVE FILTERS 459 11 DC MOTOR DRIVES 461 11.1 Pulse Width Modulation ................................. 461 12 INVERTERS AND AC MOTOR DRIVES 465 13 ELECTRON TUBES 467 13.1 Introduction ........................................ 467 13.2