Journal of Religion and Health (2019) 58:737–747 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00776-z ORIGINAL PAPER Enhancing Human Cognition Through Vajrayana Practices Maria Kozhevnikov1 Published online: 15 February 2019 © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019 Abstract Phenomenological studies suggest the existence of enhanced cognitive states, termed fow or peak experiences, in which specifc cognitive processes (e.g., attention, per- ception) can be dramatically increased for limited durations. Here we review new scientifc evidence that shows that specifc types of meditation that developed out of certain religious traditions such as Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) and Hindu Tantra lead to the enhanced cognitive states, characterized by heightened sympathetic acti- vation and phasic alertness (a signifcant temporary boost in focused attention). This is in contrast to the meditation practices (Shamatha, Vipassana) from other traditions such as Theravada and Mahayana that elicit heightened parasympathetic activity and tonic alertness. Such fndings validate Buddhist scriptural descriptions of heightened arousal during Vajrayana practices and a calm and alert state of mind during Thera- vada and Mahayana types of meditation. The fnding demonstrates the existence of enhanced cognitive states—the unique and energized states of consciousness char- acterized by a dramatic boost in focused attention. Keywords Enhanced cognitive state · Vajrayana Buddhism · Meditative practices · Creativity · Autonomic nervous system · Arousal Phenomenological studies suggest the existence of enhanced cognitive states in which specifc cognitive processes (e.g., attention, perception) can be dramatically increased for limited durations (Csikszentmihalyi 1990; Maslow 1999; Wilson 1972). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) termed such experience as fow and defned it as a unique, energized yet efortless, state of consciousness, characterized by a number of qualities, such as the merging of action and awareness (the awareness is entirely focused on the activity, and all the distracting stimuli are ignored), the loss of aware- ness of oneself, intense concentration, and distorted sense of time. Phenomenologi- cal studies (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi 1975) have emphasized the following situational * Maria Kozhevnikov [email protected] 1 Psychology Department, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, National University of Singapore, 9 Arts Link, Block AS4, Level 2, Singapore 117570, Singapore Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 738 Journal of Religion and Health (2019) 58:737–747 conditions for an individual to experience fow: (1) the direct involvement in the activity, so individual must not just be an observer, but “actively engaged in some form of clearly specifed interaction with the environment”; (2) the presence of sig- nifcant challenge (termed optimal challenge), which pushes one’s skills to their limit, but not beyond one’s capacities, and (3) intense concentration on the task. The phenomenon of enhanced cognitive states has been reported during the creative pro- cesses of visual artists (Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi 1976) as well as during vari- ous gaming experiences, for example, basketball, chess, and video gaming (Keller and Bless 2008; Moller et al. 2010). Despite numerous phenomenological reports on the existence of enhanced mental states, contemporary cognitive psychology and neuroscience have focused primar- ily on clinical states, where cognition is impaired rather than on the mental states, where cognition is enhanced. There have been only few experimental studies on this topic. For example, listening for 10 min to a Mozart sonata signifcantly improved performance on spatial reasoning tasks (Rauscher et al. 1993), as well as on the selective attention as measured by the attentional blink task (Ho et al. 2007). The enhancing efect of the music condition was temporary, however, and did not extend beyond a 15-min period (Rauscher et al. 1993). Furthermore, Kozhevnikov et al. (2009) reported the existence of similar short-term enhanced mental states after spe- cifc types of Tibetan Tantric (Vajrayana) practices. In particular, they found that meditation that required holding the focus of attention on an internally generated image of a Tibetan deity resulted in a temporary boost of participants’ performance on a number of visual–spatial working memory tasks as well as the tasks tapping object and spatial visualization capacities. May et al. (2011, p. 144) also reported improved performance on the attentional blink task following “loving-kindness” meditation, which involves focusing attention on specifc “mental images of selected people.” Recent study of Kozhevnikov et al. (2018) demonstrated that, in addition to such situational requirements as direct involvement in the activity and presence of signif- cant challenge, another important condition for reaching an enhanced cognitive state is the state of arousal—a physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli. Arousal is characterized by an increase in the activity of the sym- pathetic system, which is followed by the release of epinephrine and norepineph- rine from the endocrine system (Camm et al. 1996), which can result in the state of phasic alertness, a signifcant temporary boost in cognitive capacities (Weinbach and Henik 2011). Thus, enhanced cognitive states could be described as the state of phasic alertness, inducing by the activation of sympathetic nervous system, when an individual is actively engaged in and focused on a task (Kozhevnikov et al. 2018). The goal of this review is to show that types of meditation that developed out of certain traditions such as Vajrayana and Hindu Tantra lead to such enhanced cogni- tive states, characterized by the state of heightened sympathetic activation (arousal) and phasic alertness induced by complex visualization (e.g., focus on an image of a religious fgure) and/or somatic means (e.g., breathing). This is in contrast to meditative practices from other Buddhist traditions such as conventional types of practices (e.g., Shamatha—concentration on breath, Vipassana, insight meditation, or mindfulness), which elicit the state of relaxation, characterized by heightened 1 3 Journal of Religion and Health (2019) 58:737–747 739 parasympathetic activity and tonic alertness (vigilance or sustained attention on a stimuli). First, we will provide an overview of the autonomic system and the manner in which it underlies psychological and physiological states of relaxation and arousal and infuences attentional processes that relate to phasic and tonic alertness. Lastly, we will review studies that demonstrate that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practices generate enhanced cognitive states through the practices that are based on arousing activities (e.g., generating an emotionally signifcant image of a Tibetan deity with intense concentration (focus on an image)). Measuring Relaxation and Arousal, as Well as Tonic and Phasic Alertness Anatomically, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of neurons from within both the central nervous systems (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and receives input from anatomic regions that integrate information from within the body and the external environment, such as the hypothalamus, nucleus of the soli- tary tract, reticular formation, amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory cortex (Low 2013). The functional role of the ANS is to monitor important visceral processes that operate largely below the level of conscious awareness, such as heart rate, breathing, and digestion (Low 2013). The ANS is comprised of two major neurobiological subsystems that function both independently and in concert: the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system. These two systems often elicit opposing actions, so that when one system enhances or activates a physiological response, the other sys- tem inhibits it. The sympathetic nervous system is often called the “fght or fight” system, which accelerates the heart rate, constricts blood vessels, and raises blood pressure in order to enable a quick and mobilizing response, often as a reaction to an immediate threat. On the other hand, the parasympathetic system is often referred to as the “rest and digest” system, which slows down the heart rate, lowers blood pres- sure, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles (Bernt- son et al. 1997). As mentioned, the increased capacity to respond to stimuli that is generated by the sympathetic system coupled with active engagement of attention on a cognitive task has been termed phasic alertness (Petersen and Posner 2012; Sturm et al. 1999; Weinbach and Henik 2011). Therefore, phasic alertness is con- sistent with the notion of enhanced cognitive states, and it requires the activation of the sympathetic system and cannot co-occur with a physiological state of parasym- pathetic dominance, which is the relaxation response. On the other hand, although tonic alertness is inconsistent with drowsiness and sleep, it can nevertheless occur concurrently with a moderate level of parasympathetic activation and relaxed states. There are numerous experimental methods that have been used to demonstrate the activity of the sympathetic (arousal) and parasympathetic (relaxation) systems. One commonly used method is related to the heart rate variability (HRV), which is determined by the autonomic system (Camm et al. 1996) and is assessed through electrocardiographic measures (abbreviated as EKG or ECG).