The Hidden Power of Superheroes The Ability of Superhero Movies to Influence Political Attitudes Justin Cole i Abstract Although the literature on superheroes has expanded in recent years, it has neglected to examine whether superhero movies can affect political views. This oversight is regrettable given the recent surge in the popularity of superhero movies that engage directly with political issues such as The Dark Knight (2008), Iron Man 3 (2013), and Captain America: Civil War (2016). After a lengthy historical exploration of superheroes and a thematic analysis of these superhero movies – which collectively demonstrate that superheroes are an enduring cultural phenomenon as well as provide the theoretical underpinnings of their ability to effect attitudinal change – this study used a two-wave panel experiment to evaluate the extent to which superhero movies could cause attitudinal change. Ultimately, this study found that a significant percentage of participants changed their views on various policies related to the war on terror including torture, mass surveillance, military spending, and foreign intervention as a result of watching these superhero movies. These findings demonstrate that further research in this area is essential, particularly so long as superhero movies continue to receive critical and popular acclaim. ii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my adviser, Dr. Cori Dauber, for the guidance and advice that she provided me. Despite not even enjoying superheroes herself, she had immense faith in the value of my research, which helped propel me across the finish line. Besides my adviser, I would like to thank the other member of my thesis committee: Dr. Courtney Rivard. First, she served as my faculty mentor for an undergraduate course I taught during Spring 2017 through Carolina Students Taking Academic Responsibility Through Teaching (C-START), which undoubtedly laid the groundwork for my research. Second, her insight and difficult questions during my defense certainly improved my thesis. Two additional professors, Dr. Joseph Glatthaar and Professor Donald Hornstein, were also instrumental in encouraging me to stick with my thesis during the inevitable rough times during which completing it appeared difficult or even impossible. At this point, it is apparent that both were correct to emphasize the personal gratification and sense of accomplishment that accompanies completing a thesis. Though I will not list out all of their names here, I thank all of the students who chose to participate in my study. Without you, I could not have acquired the data that was so essential to the main argument of my thesis. Last but not least, I would like to thank my friends and family for the love and support they provided. iii Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1. A New Golden Age: The History of the Superhero and the Rise of the Superhero Movie ...............................................................................................................................................1 Superman: The First Superhero ....................................................................................................7 Criticism of Superheroes ............................................................................................................19 Study Direction ..........................................................................................................................27 Chapter 2. Mythical, Religious, and Literary Origins: The Psychological Appeal of the Superhero .......................................................................................................................................30 Mythology and Superheroes .......................................................................................................32 Superheroes and Shamans: The Origin of the Superhero Formula ........................................33 Wonder Woman and X-Men: The Embedding of Themes Within Superhero Stories ...........37 Religion and Superheroes ...........................................................................................................44 The Jewish Roots of Superman: The Protector and the Assimilator ......................................45 The Silver Surfer and Jesus Christ: The Importance of Moral Goodness ..............................52 Classic Literature and Superheroes ............................................................................................58 The Science-Fiction Superman: Superheroes and Collectivism Through Institutions ...........59 The Vigilante: Superheroes and Individuality ........................................................................66 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................71 Chapter 3. Propaganda and Political Messages: World War II and Post-9/11 Superheroes ..........73 Superheroes in World War II .....................................................................................................74 Superheroes and the Home Front ...........................................................................................77 Superheroes and the Military Might of the United States ......................................................82 Superheroes and the Vilification of the Enemy ......................................................................86 The Dark Knight (2008), Iron Man 3 (2013), and Captain America: Civil War (2016) ...........90 The Dark Knight: An Endorsement of Torture and Mass Surveillance ................................92 Iron Man 3: The Manipulation of the War on Terror and the Ineffectiveness of Military Force .......................................................................................................................................98 Captain America: Civil War: The Promotion of a Unilateralist Foreign Policy .................104 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................110 Chapter 4. Persuasive Power: Experimental Evidence of How Superhero Movies Influence Political Views ............................................................................................................................112 iv Literature Review .....................................................................................................................112 Historical Examination of Media Effects .............................................................................114 Media Effects in Entertainment ............................................................................................116 Research Design .......................................................................................................................121 Results ......................................................................................................................................124 Classifying Attitudinal Change ............................................................................................126 The Dark Knight ...................................................................................................................126 Iron Man 3 ............................................................................................................................130 Captain America: Civil War .................................................................................................133 Discussion.............................................................................................................................136 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................137 Chapter 5. “With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility”: Concluding Remarks ................139 Limitations ...............................................................................................................................139 Future Research ........................................................................................................................140 Implications ..............................................................................................................................143 Appendix A: Survey Questions ..................................................................................................145 Appendix B: Survey Data ...........................................................................................................154 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................163 v List of Figures Figure 1. Cover of Action Comics #1 (June 1938)...........................................................................7 Figure 2. “Hugo Hercules Lifting a Car” .......................................................................................12 Figure 3. Mighty Mouse ................................................................................................................15 Figure 4. Super-Rabbit ...................................................................................................................16