17 The Two Phases of William Morris's Poetics (Received November 30, 2004) KyushuInstituteofTechnology KeiNtJ'ibayashi Introduction Morris is highly estimated both as an interior designer and as a socialist. Since he played an important role in the "Arts and Crafts Movement," it is almost impossible not to mention him in the development of twentieth century interior design. He founded Morris, Marshall & Faulkner Co., which had a great impact on the late Victorian house designs, and Kelmscott Press which attempted to render books distinctive and premium household goods by deliberate adaptation of medieval printing styles. Together with his collaborations with his friends like Edward Burne- Jones (stained-glasses) and Philip Webb (Red House), Morris's involvement in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood is also often referred to especially because Jane Morris (Burden) has become its icon. Morris as a socialist is often regarded as of the so-called "utopischer Sozialismus" by Friedrich Engels. Publicly he became a member of Social Democratic Federation in 1883, and contributed many lectures and writings for its development. His socialism is generally known through IVews from IVowhere, a utopian novel written in 1891, which represents his ideal society as medieval and communist without any theoretical foundation or concrete plans. By this very fact, the novel, which is naturally considered as fantastical, stands out as the temporary embodiment of premature socialism at that time. But it is questionable whether Morris as a writer is properly evaluated now. It is difficult to find copies of his writings except IVews from Nowhere at bookstores. In the dictionaries and books of English literature, many of his creative writings are either briefly introduced or completely ignored.') Nevertheless, it is true that he spent much time and energy composing poetry and romances in spite of his business as a designer and a socialist. His poetry was highly regarded in his }ifetime and he was even asked to become the poet laureate after the death of Alfred Lord Tennyson. Many contemporary literary figures like Swinburne praised him as one of the most successfu1 poets at that time. His romances, however, were not estimated as highly as his poetry. They have been regarded as "fantasies" with a few exceptions and rarely been studied as literary pieces.2) In this context, this paper tries to reevaluate Morris's literary works, especially 18 Kei Nijibayashi focusing on his later romances which have been rather neglected, and to suggest both his aesthetic and moralistic characteristics by comparing his earlier poems with his later romances. Also it aims at demonstrating that Morris's romances can be considered as good examples in discussing the problem of "art and morality" in the history of English literature. 1 Morris's career as a writer is multiple and dramatic, and can be roughly divided into two periods of time: from 1850s to 1860s chiefly as a poet, and from 1870s to his death chiefly as a prose writer. He published The Defence of Guenevere in 1858, The Life and Death of Jason in 1867 and The Earthly Paradise between 1868 and 1870. It is significant that, at the end of 1860s, he was greatly attracted to Icelandic sagas and became acquainted with Eirikr MagnUsson, an Icelandic pastor and linguist in 1868. They started translating some Icelandic stories immediately. In 1871 and 1873 Morris travelled to Iceland and came back impressed with the simple but humanistic life there.3' They translated Grettis Saga: The Storor of Grettir the Strong (1869), Vb'lsung Saga (1870), Three Northern Love Stories (1875) and Morris composed Sigurd the Vb'lsung, using the translation. Morris's interest in socialism commenced and grew around the same time as his interest in Icelandic literature, and this social and medieval thought considerably influenced his Iater romances: The Roots of the Mountains (1890), The Story of the Glittering Plain (1890), The Woocl beyond the World (1894), Child Christopher and Goldilind the Eair (1895), The Well at the VVorld's End (1896), The Water of the Wondrous Isles (1897) and The Sundering Flood (1897). Morris's literary development in the vicissitudes of literary forms should be more clearly understood through the comparison between the poems and the later romances. Morris's most popular collection of poems is perhaps The Defence of Guenevere, his earliest one. His poetics is typically represented in "The Defence of Guenevere," the title poem, which describes the queen at the stake defending herself from Sir Gauwaine's blame. Interestingly, she does not and perhaps need not try to defend her adulterous love to Launcelot. Instead, she defies Sir Gawaine's report as false to vindicate her own innocence. This might be seen as her technique to evade ethical blame on her own personal and social duty. Her curious justification of her own "innocence" does not derive from traditional views, but from self-righteous confidence in her own emotional truths. Therefore, she never hesitates to show her joy when she sees Lancelot come to rescue her at the end of the poem: "joyfu11y/Her cheek grew crimson, as the headlong speed / Of the roan charger drew all men to see, / The knight who came was Launcelot at good need" (lines 292-95)`'. The Two Phases of William Morris's Poetics 19 Probably an ethical justification is not really important for Morris. More exactly, he offers the dramatic scene of Guenevere's defence only aesthetically: the stunning beauty of Guenevere standing alone heroically and commanding her eloquence in the most dramatic situation of the stake. The emotional strength which makes Guenevere appear divine is supported by the rhyme too.5) Though still she stood right up, and never shrunk, But spoke on bravely, glorious lady fair! Whatever tears her fu11 lips may have drunk . (lines 55-57) The triplet like terza rima contributes much to revealing her hidden inner emotions and to strengthening her speech even to persuade the un-persuadable. Considering the infiuences from Browning and Rossetti, it is inferable that the former gave the style of dramatic monologue and the latter led him to concentrate on the aesthetic aspect of human thoughts and emotions. The poem's aestheticism looks significant in comparison with Tennyson's "Guenevere." Tennyson's ldorlls of the King forms conservative and moralistic nationalism, which is conveniently compatible with the moral code of the Victorian period and is politically almost the opposite of Morris.6' Taking Tennyson's domination as a poet at that period into consideration, Morris's challenge against the contemporary ethical commonsense is intriguingly sensational. In fact there are some other poems in The Defence of Guenevere which do not allow easy ethical judgement like "Golden Wings" and "The Haystack in the Floods." Especially in the latter, it is almost monstrous to see Jehane's desperate ennui, which portends the horrible reality of life and death both to Robert and herself. Her defiance against Godmar on one hand represents the strength of individual will, but, on the other hand, it can be interpreted as the trap of temporary emotions which gorge and destroy her life itself. This negative aspect of individual will, which even devours others, offers one of the most anti-moralistic features in Morris's poetry and exceeds that in Rossetti's "The Blessed Damozel," in which the girl wishes that her lover were dead to be reunited with her in heaven. Jehane's nihilistic smile after Robert's death shows "terrible beauty" in her accomplishing self-identification and self-importance, and this very beauty, which is gained by people's blood, is the focus of the poem. She shook her head and gazed awhile At her cold hands with a ruefu1 smile, As though this thing had made her mad. (lines 162-64) 20 Kei Nijibayashi Perhaps this is one of the extremes of aestheticism in Morris's poetry. Morris's aestheticism can be traced in his later poems like The Earthly Paradise and The Life and Death of Jason, especially in his apology to the former poem, which manifests his aestheticism as escapism. He clearly separates poetry from political or social context and offers it as a kind of consolation for human sufferings. Though it is tricky to judge if his attitude is pessiinistic, he clearly limits his role as a poet within the artistic field in "Apology" of 7Ihe Earthly Paradise. So with this Earthly Paradise it is, If ye will read aright, and pardon me, Who strive to build a shadowy isle of bliss Midmost the beating of the steely sea, Where tossed about all hearts of men must be . (lines 36-40) Another good example is the opening poem, "The Wanderers," which describes how the protagonist's yearning for an earthly paradise is enhanced through various adventures and is disillusioned by the false artificial paradise at the end. The monologue is suitable for describing the narrator's changing impressions and enables the reader to follow his experience, nullifying the allegorical aspect and purifying the self-complete aestheticism. In fact, the Elder of the City relishes the Wanderer's narrative in contentment: "it shall bring us wealth of happy hours."7) The characteristics of Morris's poems as aesthetic are now to be compared with those of his later romances. 2 Morris's later romances have some typical features: archaism, medievalism, and epic and fantastical background. They all contribute to forming the legends of ideal heroes in ideal backgrounds. They might seem to be suggesting Morris's escapism again, and this can be discussed from the question of his disinterest in novels. He arguably considered his romances in reproduced medieval worlds as homage to the great medieval literary culture (as he did in publishing the illuminated books from Kelmscott Press).