WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/westminsterresearch Challenging the incompatibility paradigm: a democratic audit of Jordan, 1990-2010 Adli Ali Salim Hawwari School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2012. This is an exact reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e- mail [email protected] CHALLENGING THE INCOMPATIBILITY PARADIGM A DEMOCRATIC AUDIT OF JORDAN 1990-2010 A. HAWWARI PhD 2012 CHALLENGING THE INCOMPATIBILITY PARADIGM A DEMOCRATIC AUDIT OF JORDAN 1990-2010 ADLI HAWWARI A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2012 Abstract This thesis assesses the state of democracy in Jordan over a period of twenty years (1990-2010), and revisits the claims of incompatibility between democracy and both Islam and Islamism. It subjects the claims to theoretical and empirical tests. This is possible through a case study of Jordan. The state was established by Britain, and is ruled by a dynasty, which highlights its lineage to the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad. Jordan also allowed the Muslim Brothers to take part in the process characterised by King Hussein in 1989 as the ‘resumption of our democratic life.’ Incompatibility is taken to mean that Islamic teachings prohibit adopting democracy as a system of government, as Qutb and Mawdudi have argued; and that democracy cannot take root in a Muslim society because the state and church (mosque) are inseparable, as argued by Lewis and others. The thesis outlines the procedure Muslim jurists use to declare an act or a notion to be allowed (halal) or forbidden (haram). It also engages with various democratic theories including the argument that democracy is ‘an essentially contested concept.’ The thesis establishes that, theoretically, Islam is not incompatible with democracy, whether as claimed by Qutb and Mawdudi, or Lewis and Huntington. Moreover, the thesis posits that if the democratic audit establishes that Jordan is a democracy, the compatibility of democracy and Islam is validated empirically. The audit revealed that Jordan was not a democracy. The roles of Islam and Islamism in hindering the development of democracy in Jordan were examined. The evidence indicated that they did not. Therefore, other reasons were examined, such as rentierism, Arab-Israel conflict, and Rustow’s modernisation theory. The latter offers the most plausible explanation, as Jordan has not satisfied Rustow’s four antecedents to democracy. The Islamist groups have not yet managed to be in power through democratic means. It remains debatable whether they will adhere to democracy after it brings them to power. The case of Jordan provides counter-evidence that the Islamists can hold the belief that Islam provides a superior form of government, but can simultaneously play by democratic rules. One could even argue that in Jordan there was a case of a democratic paradox in reverse. i Acknowledgments I would like to thank my director of studies, Dr. Maria Holt, who guided me in a most constructive and supportive manner. She gave me the time and space I needed to do my research without any pressure, and provided the feedback necessary to improve what I had written and argued at all stages. Moreover, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. ‛Abdelwahab El-Affendi. His knowledge in the field of Islam and democracy is invaluable. My thesis benefited a great deal from a discussion with Professor Chantal Mouffe, particularly in relation to the issues of compatibility of Islam and democracy, and alternative forms of democracy. I also had invaluable feedback on some chapters from Professor Ali Paya, Professor Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti, Dr. Larbi Sadiki, Dr. Paulina Tambakaki, Dr. Amaney Jamal, Dr. Mustafa Hamarneh, and Dr. Anastasia Deli. I am grateful to all of them. In addition, I thank Professor Debora Kelly and Dr. Mike Fisher for the guidance and support they provide for PhD candidates at all stages. I would like to thank the people who answered my questionnaires and those who answered my questions in interviews, some of which took place in their homes—thus showing the ultimate form of hospitality. I also would like to thank friends in Amman and London who helped with contacts or supplied me with books: Mu ‛awiya Faydi, Sa ‛d Hattar, Sahar Qara‛in, Jehan Helou, and Sohair Soliman. My brother Muhammad provided a great deal of help, especially in purchasing or photocopying books that I needed. Last but not least, my wife, Safia, deserves a big thank you for coping with the many hours I have spent in the study which overflowed with books and papers. ii Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgments ................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents .................................................................................................. iii List of Tables......................................................................................................... viii List of Appendices ................................................................................................ ix List of Interviews…. ............................................................................................. x Transliteration System .......................................................................................... xii Acronyms and abbreviations ................................................................................. xiii Glossary ................................................................................................................ xiv Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 Aims of thesis and research questions ........................................................... 3 Structure of thesis .......................................................................................... 4 A note on theory, practice, and ideology ....................................................... 6 Chapter 1: Methods, Theoretical Framework, and Literature Review ......... 8 Research Methods ......................................................................................... 8 Research resources ................................................................................. 11 A note on using the Qur’anic verses ...................................................... 12 Theoretical Framework.................................................................................. 13 Democracy: Contesting the concept ...................................................... 14 Democracy and cultures ......................................................................... 19 Prerequisites for democracy ................................................................... 19 Evolution of definitions of democracy .................................................. 25 Literature Review .......................................................................................... 28 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2: Islam, Islamism, and Democracy ................................................... 43 Islam and democracy ..................................................................................... 43 Islam and democracy: Incompatibility claims ............................................... 44 iii Incompatibility claims made by Muslims ..................................................... 49 Language: Old and new meanings ......................................................... 53 Tawhid ................................................................................................... 57 The caliphate: Islam’s political system? ................................................ 58 Incompatibility claims made by non-Muslims .............................................. 63 Democracy and Shari ‛a ................................................................................. 67 Islamism and democracy ............................................................................... 69 Objections to Islamism .......................................................................... 70 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 3: Assessing Democracy: Theory and Practice ................................. 78 Can democracy be measured? ....................................................................... 78 Measuring