African Traditional Religions Aboriginal Religions. Aboriginal religions in original thinking processes, basic concerns, and Australia share many similarities with other pri- needs expressed in the myths remain. For this mal religions, yet they are as distinctive and as reason missions and church need to treat aborig- different as the variety of aboriginal languages. inal religions seriously, irrespective of how their In traditional aboriginal cosmology there was significance is understood, and assist the aborig- awareness among some tribes of a deity, such as ines in recapturing the gospel that addresses the All Father or All Mother, although these have their needs. There remains a great need to ex- not generally been important. A lesser, but more plore the use of indigenous art, music, and cor- significant being is the widely known Rainbow roboree to communicate the gospel. Serpent. This Rainbow Serpent and a variety of ALBERT F. TUCKER formative spirit-beings were responsible for the formation of the present world order. Bibliography. M. Charlesworth, H. Morphy, D. Bell, The foundation for the aboriginal view of real- and K. Maddock, Religion in Aboriginal Australia: An Anthology; M. Eliade, Australian Religions: An Intro- ity is the primeval, mythical epoch called the duction; E. Kolig, The Silent Revolution: The Effects of Dreaming. The Dreaming events are recounted Modernization on Australian Aboriginal Religion. in the aboriginal myths. In the Dreaming a vari- ety of formative spirit-beings emerged from the African Traditional Religions. General designa- earth or sea and took on part plant or animal tion for the religions of the ethnic groups of Af- and human forms. They moved across the fea- rica. It does not describe a specific religion. It tureless landscape, forming the various topo- does not refer to the religious system of any par- graphical features, plants, animals, and humans. ticular group. By using expressions such as “Afri- Some of the formative spirit-beings then re- can Traditional Religions,” “African Primal Reli- turned to the earth, forming various topographic gions,” or “African Religion,” scholars seek to phenomena that are regarded as sacred sites. While the initial creativity of the Dreaming is distinguish the indigenous religions of Africa complete, the Dreaming is ever present to the from foreign and imported ones such as Christi- people through participation in ritual, ceremo- anity, Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism. nies or “corroborees,” art, and song. The Dream- Scholars of religion in Africa do not agree ing myths give rise to the aboriginal understand- among themselves on the use of the plural for ing of their relationship with the land, animals, the term chosen to group together and describe and plant life. Aboriginal people see themselves the indigenous religious beliefs of African peo- sharing a common ancestry with the plants and ples. They also disagree on the necessity of keep- animals, being of common spiritual essence. ing adjectives like “traditional” and “primal.” Each group is obligated to others to perform the There is, however, near unanimity about the fact ceremonies relevant to their particular totemic that certain terms used in the past are no longer ancestors to ensure the continuity and suste- adequate or appropriate. For example, African nance of the species. religions have been called primitive, savage, na- The main religious activity is associated with tive, tribal, pagan, animistic, or heathen. This keeping alive the Dreaming creativity in the pres- way of describing African religions is now found ent to ensure renewal or renovation of the cos- mostly in older studies. Occasionally, in polemi- mic order. In the ritual reenactment the primor- cal literature, one may still see references to idol- dial events are made present and the performer atry and fetishism as the main characteristics of becomes the totemic ancestor. Some rituals are African religions. “African Traditional Religions” solely for initiated men and held in secret; some and “African Religion” are, nevertheless, the are exclusively for women; others are shared by terms most commonly used in current studies. both genders with separate responsibilities. The The preference for African Traditional Reli- Dreaming spirit-beings provided a precedent for gions, African Religion, or an equivalent term all ceremonies and social customs as well, so all represents an important shift in understanding of life is seen to be sacred; their responsibility is African religious beliefs and systems. This shift to keep them alive and productive. To the aborig- in understanding and depicting the religions of ine living is a religious activity. Human life be- Africa is a recognition of the fact that these reli- gins and ends in the spirit world. gions must be studied in their own right. They The change brought about by acculturation are not varieties of primitive religion. They must and white encroachment has been cataclysmic, be viewed as major living religions. In that sense, resulting in widespread desacralization and de- African religions belong in the category “world moralization of society. Consequently there have religions.” One should not think, therefore, that been few recorded revitalization movements, yet “traditional” in African Traditional Religions in- aboriginal religions have survived and changed dicates that these are dead or dying religions. dramatically among the tribal people. They are the beliefs and practices of contempo- Whether aboriginal religious tradition is still rary Africans. Their present vitality is best sug- an important reality for individuals or not, ab- gested by the use of African Religions or Religion 1 African Traditional Religions since the adjective “traditional” may imply that of religion as the prevention of misfortune and these religions are either “past” or practiced by the maximization of good fortune. “non-modern” Africans. The focus on preventing misfortune and maxi- Should one approach the study of religion in mizing good fortune makes African religions an- Africa with the assumption of unity or multiplic- thropocentric; that is, a major goal of African ity? Are we faced with many ethnic religions or religions is to ensure the present well-being of are these religions different manifestations of a humans and their communities. Harmony be- coherent African religion? If a single coherent tween spiritual and physical forces, the environ- African religion does not exist, how useful is the ment, and humans is the prerequisite for the linking together of all indigenous African reli- well-being of the individual and the community. gions? These questions have fueled much debate God, the all-powerful Creator of all things, is be- among students of religion in Africa. There lieved to be benevolent. In that sense, harmony, seems to be a growing consensus that unity is a success, and abundant life come from him. But better way of conceptualizing the religious be- God is rather uninvolved in the daily lives of hu- liefs and practices of Africans. One must, how- mans. He has given the responsibility of regulat- ever, use caution in generalizing about religion ing human lives to spiritual entities that can be in Africa. One should neither proceed too quickly called “minor deities.” In this regard, Joseph Os- to make comparisons nor refrain from noting ei-Bonsu notes that “[t]he idea of minor deities is similarities. General and comparative studies of found among our people. These are believed to religion in Africa are indicated when one deals be the sons of the Supreme Being, created by with questions of religious presuppositions, him, and to whom he has delegated the supervi- worldview, and structure. This kind of study is sion of the affairs of this world” (1990, 354). useful in its description of broad and general Mediation between God and humans is the characteristics which may be common to the chief religious role of the minor deities. They majority of African religions. For concrete every- share this role with the ancestors, the elders, and day religious life and practice, however, there is the various religious functionaries of African so- need to be as specific as possible: for example, cieties. Harmony in the world and all the condi- tions for health, prosperity, and abundant life are one may investigate the doctrines and practices achieved by the mediation of these multiple in- of Yoruba or Akamba religion. Numerous mono- termediaries. This conception of mediation is graph studies of African religions by anthropolo- crucial for understanding the essence of African gists and others are representative of this ap- religions. Mediation is also one of the fundamen- proach. These and other specific studies provide tal points of divergence between African reli- the necessary complement to general compara- gions and Christianity since “the idea of interme- tive descriptions of African religion. They eluci- diary divinities has no place in Christianity” date the ethnic grounding of these religions, (ibid.). thereby depicting the particular African traits. The relationship between God and the media- Whether one studies the religion of a particu- tors, taken together with the focus on the “lesser lar ethnic group or attempts to understand the divinities,” helps explain why it is nearly impos- general characteristics of African religions, one sible to solve the nature of theism in African reli- faces an important challenge: African religions gions. One cannot categorically state that Afri- do not have known founders or sacred books can religions are either monotheistic or preserving their teachings and doctrines. Oral polytheistic. Belief in God, the One and Supreme narratives and rituals are therefore the main ma- High Being, is widespread. Yet, the Supreme terials from which scholars derive the beliefs of Being may not be approached without the help African peoples. of intermediaries. This means that theism in Af- The examination of African religious ceremo- rican religions can be described as ontological nies and narratives reveals that they focus on the monotheism with liturgical polytheism. It is li- importance of affirming life.