Democracy, Regional Autonomy and Peace in Aceh by Badrus Sholeh Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University November, 2015 Acknowledgements I am grateful to the people whose contributions have made the completion of this thesis possible. Firstly, I owe heartfelt thanks to Damien Kingsbury, who has been kindly and patiently supportive of this research since the earliest period of my study. I also owe thanks to Baogang He, who spent his time to discuss some chapters – the most crucial part – which made the comparative studies of Aceh, Timor- Leste and Southern Philippinesmore interesting. Thanks also to Sue Kenny, who suggested an early version of the draft. Furthermore, I want to convey my sincere thanks to the many people I have met during my research in Aceh, Dili and Mindanao: Bang Fahmi and Bang Fuad Mardhatillah of Aceh Institute; Bang Nur Djuli and Bang Irwandi Yusuf; Teungku Djamaeka; and all former combatants. Thanks to Rufa of Mindanao State University, and to Pak Arif Abdullah Sagran of Dili, who assisted during my research in Mindano and Dili, respectively. Special thanks to my parents, brothers and sisters. Very special and sincere thanks to Tia Mariatul Kibtiah, who inspired me and was supportive at all times. Also thanks to Dean Bahtiar Effendy and all my colleagues in the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University. Finally, I want to convey my deepest sincere thanks to Ruth Fluhr, who tirelessly edited this document and suggested very valuable improvements to the text. Melbourne/Jakarta, February 2015 ii Abstract The thesis examines the dynamics of democratisation and regional autonomy in Aceh, and the way in which these have contributed to peacebuilding since the Helsinki peace accord in 2005. The analysis undertaken in this thesis attempts to answer three questions. Firstly, to what extent can the implemented elections in 2012 and in 2014 in Aceh explain peaceful democracy with free and fair elections involving former combatants, local and national parties? The rise of violence before the elections worried analysts, who argued that killings, violent attacks and intimidation threatened the initiatives of peacebuilding. Security forces responded slowly and late to the rise of violence, due to a strong political interest in the attacks giving advantages to the Party Aceh. Even though most of the criminals – the killers and attackers – received penalties before the courts, the police failed to search for political motives behind the crimes. The violence caused friction among political and grassroots elites, especially between the members of the Party Aceh (PA) and the Aceh National Party (PNA). The second question is how regional autonomy based on the Law on Governing Aceh (LoGA), Law No. 11/ 2006 as an implementation of the Helsinki peace accord, works effectively to strengthen peacebuilding and prosperity in Aceh. Good communication between the local and central governments is crucial to ensure that the regional autonomy policy is positive towards economic development and peace in Aceh. This thesis argues that the increase in the disbursement of funds derived from local government revenues resulting from fossil fuel resources is a great contribution to prosperity and development in Aceh. However, mismanagement and corruption in local government have challenged a comprehensive effort aimed at peace and economic development. Lastly, the thesis aims to investigate how the pivotal lessons learned in Aceh with regard to post-conflict transition can translate to other Southeast Asian conflict zones – in particular Timor-Leste, the southern Phillippines and southern Thailand. The thesis argues that the achievement of democracy and peace in Aceh has an important inspirational role to play in strengthening the process of conflict resolution and iii the transition to democracy in post-war and post-conflict regions, in Southeast Asia particularly and in the wider world. This thesis is based on fieldwork in Aceh, Timor-Leste and Mindanao in the southern Philippines, from 2010 to 2014, comprising interviews with local leaders, parliamentary members and human rights activists from government and civil society. The theoretical underpinning of the research methodology rests on international relations theory; in particular, the theories of realism, liberalism and multilateralism are consulted. In addition, democratic peace theory is examined to understand the proper structuring of institutions relevant and necessary to conflict transition and the preservation of peace through liberalisation and democratisation. The thesis concludes that, in general, democratic peace has been implemented reasonably well in Aceh and the province shows positive signs of continuing peace and democracy. However, a crucial and urgent factor in realising Aceh’s complete transition from a former conflict zone will be the provision of meaningful work for the Acehnese people, many of whom have never known a life other than that of a combatant. Such provision will depend on the continuing support of the central government and the international community, particularly foreign investors. iv Contents Declaration i Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii Figures and Tables x Glossary xi Map of Aceh xiv Chapter 1 Introduction: Aceh History, Conflict and Development 1 Introduction 1 Population, Conflict and Poverty 14 Research Method 19 Filling the Gaps 25 The Structure of the Thesis 28 Conclusion 29 Chapter 2 Literature Review: Multidimensional Perspectives on Aceh Post-Conflict 31 Introduction 31 History and Development in Aceh 33 Regional Autonomy 36 Democracy and Peace 39 International States, CSOs and Regional Peace 43 Aceh, Timor-Leste and the Southern Philippines: Comparative Studies 46 Conclusion 47 Chapter 3 Theoretical Considerations 49 Introduction 49 Realism 53 Liberalism 56 Liberal Peace 57 Multilateralism and the International Regime 61 Paradigm of Peace 63 Chapter 4 Regional Autonomy, Development and Peace in Aceh 69 Introduction 69 Separatism and Regional Autonomy 73 After the New Order 78 v Reintegration 85 Patronage and Corruption 88 Economic Development 90 Managing Divided Society 92 Conclusion 97 Chapter 5 The Contribution of the EU and ASEAN to the Transition to Peace in Aceh 99 Introduction 99 Non-Interference and Peacebuilding 102 EUand ASEAN for Peace 104 Reintegration of GAM 108 Democracy, Reconciliation and Development 112 The Future of Democracy and Peace 116 Conclusion 118 Chapter 6 Democracy and Peace in Aceh: The 2012 Election 120 Introduction 120 Foundation of Democracy 122 International Support 128 Dynamics of Politics 130 Political Violence 134 Local Parties 145 Peaceful Elections 145 The Prospect for Democracy 152 The Results of the 2012 Elections 155 Conclusion 156 Chapter 7 Democracy and Peace in Aceh: The 2014 Election 159 Introduction 159 Violence and Friction 163 Women in Aceh Politics 167 Surprising Results 170 Presidential Election 173 Future of Democracy 176 Conclusion 178 Chapter 8 Democracy and Peacebuilding in Southeast Asia: How MILF Learned from Aceh 179 Introduction 179 vi International and Regional Support 184 Political Leadership 186 After the Peace Accord 193 Lessons from Aceh 198 Local Politics 202 Women in Peace Efforts 203 Conclusion 205 Chapter 9 Democratic Transition and the Transformation of Combatants in Southeast Asia: Lessons from Aceh and Timor-Leste 207 Introduction 207 Peace and Democracy 211 Democratic Transition 211 Building Friendship between Indonesia and Timor-Leste 218 Future Challenges 223 Strengthening Friendship 225 Conclusion 226 Chapter 10 Democracy and Regional Peace: Lessons from Aceh 229 Introduction 229 International Coalition for Peace 232 Post-Conflict Democracy 234 Democracy, Peace and Security 235 Democracy and International Affairs 238 Civil Society and Peacebuilding 238 Indonesian Muslims in the Global Peace 243 Conclusion 255 Chapter 11 Conclusion: Lessons from Aceh Democracy and Peace 258 Introduction 258 Democracy and Peacebuilding 263 Regional Autonomy 268 Regional Peace 269 Bibliography 272 vii Figures and Tables Figures 1.1. Percentages of Urban and Rural Poor People in Aceh from 2000 to 2014 17 1.2. Numbers and Percentages of Rural Poor People in Post-Conflict and Conflict Indonesia in March 2012 18 7.1. The Result of the 2014 Presidential Elections in Post-Conflict Regions in Indonesia 176 Tables 1.1 Percentages and Numbers of Poor People in Urban and Rural Areas in Aceh and Indonesia from 2000 to 2014 21 1.2 Units of Variation, Observation and Measurement 21 2.1. Summary of Explanatory Perspectives on the Iraq Invasion 54 7.1. Seats in the Provincial Legislature (DPRA) after the 2009 and 2014 Elections 172 7.2. Seats in the National Parliamentafter the 2009 and 2014 Elections 173 viii Glossary ABAS West Aceh and South Aceh (Aceh Barat Aceh Selatan) Adat customs and traditions AGAM Free Aceh Movement Armed Forces (Angkatan Gerakan Atjeh Merdeka) ALA Aceh Leuser Antara AMM Aceh Monitoring Mission ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASNLF Acheh-Sumatra National Liberation Front Bangsa nation BPS Indonesian Statistics (Badan Pusat Statistik) BRA Aceh Reintegration Board (Badan Reintegrasi Aceh) BRR Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency (Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi) Bupati head of a district Camat sub-district head CMI Crisis Management Initiative CoHA Cessation of Hostilities Agreement CSO Civil Society Organisation Darul Islam abode of Islam, the first separatist