Department of Political and Social Sciences Media Systems and Information Environments: A Comparative Approach to the Agenda­Setting Hypothesis José António Afonso Santana Pereira Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of Political and Social Sciences of the European University Institute Florence, October 2012 EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE Department of Political and Social Sciences Media Systems and Information Environments A Comparative Approach to the Agenda­ Setting Hypothesis José António Afonso Santana Pereira Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of Political and Social Sciences of the European University Institute Examining Board: Prof. Mark N. Franklin, European University Institute (Supervisor) Prof. Alexander H. Trechsel, European University Institute (Co­supervisor) Prof. Shanto Iyengar, StanfordUniversity Prof. Susan Banducci, University of Exeter © 2012, José António Afonso Santana Pereira No part of this thesis may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author ABSTRACT The present dissertation aims at the comparative study of agenda-setting (i.e., the impact of media content for the importance people give to several political and social issues) in Europe. The focus is set on the 2009 European Parliament election campaign period and one of the central objectives is to establish whether or not the media agenda-setting capacity varies from country to country, and why this may be the case. The hypothetical causes of cross-country variability are the nature of the several European media systems (in terms of development of press and TV markets, freedom of press, journalist professionalization, state intervention, media partisanship) and their effects in the informational environment, both from the perspective of the supply (information quality, diversity of agendas) and demand (trust in the media, patterns of exposure). The results show that these macro-level dimensions vary considerably in Europe, and that there is a link between media system dimensions related to political balance and agenda-setting, mediated by information quality. v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I – INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………3 1.1 Goals .................................................................................................................. 6 1.2 Geographical Scope and Time Frame ....................................................... 11 1.3 Data Sources ................................................................................................... 13 1.4 Thesis Overview ............................................................................................ 14 PART II - THEORY 2. Agenda-Setting. Four Decades of Research………………....…….19 2.1 Political Communication Research Prior to Agenda-Setting ............... 20 2.1.1 The Reaction to the Minimal Effects Paradigm .................................. 24 2.1.1.1 Malaise vs. Mobilization/Learning .............................................. 24 2.1.1.2 Persuasion Studies ........................................................................ 27 2.1.1.3 Agenda-Setting, Priming and Framing ........................................ 28 2.2 The Concept of Agenda-Setting ................................................................. 29 2.2.1 Agendas ................................................................................................... 30 2.2.2 Agenda Capacity .................................................................................... 32 2.2.3 Issue Salience, Importance and Relevance .......................................... 34 2.2.4 Linear vs. Non-linear Approaches ....................................................... 36 2.3 First Agenda-Setting Studies and Subsequent Research ...................... 37 2.3.1 Taxonomies of Agenda-Setting Research ............................................ 40 2.4 The Mechanisms Underlying Agenda-Setting ........................................ 51 2.4.1 The Audience – Learners or Victims? .................................................. 51 2.4.2 The Media Effect – Intentional or Mediational? ................................. 53 2.5 The Moderators of Agenda-Setting ........................................................... 54 2.5.1 Individual-level Moderators ................................................................ 55 2.5.2 Issue-related Moderators ....................................................................... 62 2.6 So What? The Relevance of Agenda-Setting ........................................... 66 2.7 Agenda-Setting, Spiral of Silence, Uses and Gratifications ................. 70 2.8 Critical Appraisal of Agenda-Setting Studies ......................................... 71 vii 3. Media Systems and Information Environments………………….75 3.1 The Concept of Media System.................................................................... 76 3.1.1 Definition ................................................................................................. 76 3.1.2 A History of Theoretical Models .......................................................... 78 3.2 Relevant Features of Media Systems ........................................................ 85 3.2.1 Development of Media Markets ........................................................... 85 3.2.2 Strength of Public TV ............................................................................. 88 3.2.3 Freedom of Press ..................................................................................... 92 3.2.4 Journalist Professionalization ............................................................... 94 3.2.5 Partisanship/Balance ............................................................................. 97 3.3 Information Environment ......................................................................... 103 3.3.1 Information Quality .............................................................................. 103 3.3.2 Media Agenda Diversity...................................................................... 110 3.3.3 Trust in the Media ................................................................................ 110 3.3.3 Exposure ................................................................................................ 103 3.4 Final Notes.................................................................................................... 113 PART III - MEDIA SYSTEMS AND INFORMATION ENVIRONMENTS 4. Studying Media Systems and Information Environments in Europe, 2009: Hypotheses and Data ………………….……………..117 4.1 Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 118 4.2. Data Sources ................................................................................................ 121 4.3 Variable Operationalization ..................................................................... 122 4.3.1 Development of Press Markets ........................................................... 122 4.3.2 Public TV Strength ................................................................................ 125 4.3.3 Freedom of Press ................................................................................... 125 4.3.4 Journalist Professionalization ............................................................. 129 4.3.5 Partisanship/Balance ........................................................................... 131 4.3.6 Information Quality .............................................................................. 134 4.3.7 Media Agenda Diversity...................................................................... 136 4.3.8 Trust ........................................................................................................ 134 4.3.9 Exposure ................................................................................................ 136 4.4 Final Notes.................................................................................................... 139 viii 5. Media Systems and Information Environments in Europe……141 5.1 Descriptive Analysis of Media Systems ................................................. 142 5.1.1 Development of Press Markets .......................................................... 142 5.1.2 Strength of Public TV ........................................................................... 151 5.1.3 Freedom of Press ................................................................................... 155 5.1.4 Journalist Professionalization ............................................................. 158 5.1.5 Partisanship/Balance........................................................................... 162 5.1.5 Relationship between Media System Dimensions ........................... 169 5.2 Analysis of Information Environments .................................................. 175 5.2.1 Quality .................................................................................................... 176 5.2.2 Trust ........................................................................................................ 176 5.2.3 Exposure ................................................................................................ 176 5.2.4 Media Agenda Diversity...................................................................... 176 5.3 Final Comments .......................................................................................... 197 PART IV - AGENDA-SETTING 6. Assessing Agenda-Setting in the EU, 2009………...…………….205