EXPLORING LINGUISTIC “CREATIVITY” ON SOCIAL MEDIA: A CASE OF SELECTED POSTS BY NAMIBIANS ON FACEBOOK, TWITTER AND WHATSAPP A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH STUDIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA BY TERTISIA NDINELAO NGHIPONDOKA 200816799 APRIL 2020 SUPERVISOR: DR S. SHIPALE ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study was to explore linguistic innovation, a case of selected posts by Namibian as expressed on social media platforms: Facebook, WhatsApp and Twitter. In addition, the study sought to identify the strategies of linguistic innovation and to examine the motivation behind this innovation. By assessing the extent that the innovated language deviates from standard English, the study was able to evaluate the distinction of the innovated language from “incorrect” forms of English as a World English. The qualitative research approach was appropriate for the study because it allowed an in-depth exploration of the various forms and strategies of linguistic innovation among Namibian social media users. The non-probability sampling technique was used to select the 50 conversations as screenshots, which were then analysed using Discourse Analysis. The study revealed that interaction among the youth is made up of informal structures that deviate from standard English, which is a reflection of netspeak among the digital natives. The study found that the youth uses the following strategies of linguistic innovation: emojis and emoticons, code-switching/mixing, colloquialisms and slang, and other forms such as vulgar and acronyms. The study concluded that linguistic innovation and creativity depend on the social media platform, based on features such as text limits and visibility of the conversations or posts. The study was centred on the Sociolinguistics Theory, based on the notion that the youth is part of society with its cultural norms, and who apply language within a context; hence, there is a correlation between social structure and their linguistic structure. Finally, the study concluded that the linguistic innovation is distinct from “incorrect” forms of English, recommending that it should be distinguished by classifying it among World Englishes instead of a World English. i Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... i LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. v DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................. vi DECLARATIONS ....................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the study ................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Objectives of the study .................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Significance of the study ................................................................................................ 5 1.5 Limitation of the study ................................................................................................... 6 1.6 Delimitation of the study ............................................................................................... 6 1.7 Outline of the study ....................................................................................................... 6 1.8 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Language varieties and varieties of English ................................................................... 9 2.3 Standard English........................................................................................................... 12 2.4 Standardisation and codification of English ................................................................. 18 2.5 World English and Englishes ........................................................................................ 19 2.6 Namlish among English-based pidgins and creoles ..................................................... 25 2.7 Internet linguistics: the influence of e-discourse on linguistic innovation .................. 26 2.8 The place of e-discourse in sociolinguistics ................................................................. 28 2.9 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................ 30 2.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................. 33 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 33 3.2 Research design ........................................................................................................... 33 3.3 Population .................................................................................................................... 35 3.4 Sample .......................................................................................................................... 35 3.5 Research instruments .................................................................................................. 36 3.6 Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 36 ii 3.7 Data analysis ................................................................................................................ 37 3.8 Research ethics ............................................................................................................ 38 3.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................. 39 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 39 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 39 4.2 Strategies of linguistic innovation and creativity ......................................................... 40 4.2.1 Innovation and creativity through emojis and emoticons .................................... 40 4.2.2 Innovation and creativity through code-switching/mixing ................................... 50 4.2.3 Innovation and creativity through other forms .................................................... 53 4.3 Influence of social media platform .............................................................................. 61 4.4 Deviation from standard forms of English ................................................................... 63 4.5 Distinction from “incorrect” forms of English .............................................................. 65 4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 67 CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................. 68 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 68 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 68 5.2 Summary of findings .................................................................................................... 69 5.2.1 Emojis and emoticons as strategies of linguistic innovation ................................ 69 5.2.2 Innovation and creativity through code-switching/mixing ................................... 71 5.2.3 Innovation and creativity through other forms .................................................... 72 5.3 Influence of social media platform .............................................................................. 74 5.4 Deviation from standard forms of English ..................................................................