View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Texas A&M University THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF WOMEN’S REPRESENTATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENTS A Dissertation by KENDALL DAWN FUNK Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Maria Escobar-Lemmon Co-Chair of Committee, Kenneth J. Meier Committee Members, Michelle Taylor-Robinson Justin Bullock Head of Department, William Clark May 2017 Major Subject: Political Science Copyright 2017 Kendall Dawn Funk ABSTRACT Local governments are thought to be more conducive to women’s representation be- cause they are closer to home, easier to access, and require less time and resources than positions in higher levels of government. However, women remain severely underrepre- sented even at the local level. What are the causes and consequences of women’s (un- der)representation in local governments? This dissertation contributes to the small, but growing, body of research that seeks to answer this question by examining women’s lo- cal representation both within a single country and across multiple countries over time. Within the dissertation, I develop several theoretical arguments and test these theories us- ing data from Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America. The first theory I present is that decentralization has a detrimental impact on women’s local representation. By increasing the power and desirability of local offices, decentralization creates barriers to women’s lo- cal representation. I find evidence that Latin American countries with high levels of fiscal and administrative decentralization have fewer women in local legislatures than countries with low levels of decentralization. Second, I present the glass cliff theory—the idea that women are more likely to attain leadership positions under precarious circumstances— and test whether women mayoral candidates in Brazil face a glass cliff. I find that women are more likely to be nominated to run for mayor when their political party is competing against an incumbent. In addition, women are more likely to be nominated in municipali- ties with small and decreasing budgets. These findings provide evidence that women face a glass cliff in their pursuit of local political representation. Third, I examine some of the consequences of women’s representation as local chief executives in Brazilian municipal- ities. Particularly, I test the theory that women’s leadership styles are more inclusive and participatory than men’s styles of leading. I present evidence that the leadership styles of ii men and women mayors in Brazil don’t differ significantly, but there are important gender differences in the types of policy areas in which local executives initiate participation. I conclude that leadership strategy, more so than style, determines whether an elected offi- cial will choose to increase citizen participation in specific areas. iii DEDICATION To all of the strong women in my life who have encouraged and motivated me, especially my mother and sisters. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Oh, where to begin? I owe a debt of gratitude to so many people who have contributed not only to making this dissertation possible, but to all of the steps along the way that led up to the dissertation and my ultimate success in graduate school. I would not be writing these words right now if Francisco Pedraza had not said to me: “Have you ever thought about applying to Ph.D. programs?" Francisco, thank you for this and for your continued encouragement and support. I am so grateful to the professors at Texas A&M who have taught and mentored me throughout my graduate career. Many thanks to Erica Owen, Guy Whitten, Christine Lipsmeyer, Sarah Fulton, Nehemia Geva, and Manny Teodoro for feedback, criticism, methods skills, research ideas, and the many other contributions you all have made to my education and academic career. To my committee: this dissertation, and my Ph.D., would not be possible without your unwavering support. Thank you for devoting time to advising me, listening to my research ideas, reading drafts, providing guidance, and dealing with bureaucracy to see that I crossed the finish line. Justin Bullock, your feedback on my work encourages me to expand my frame of thinking and the scope of my research beyond the field of political science. I’m happy to have you on my team and thankful you agreed to join. Misha Taylor- Robinson, you are the reason that I am a scholar of gender and politics. Who knew that being your graduate assistant during my first semester in graduate school would come to shape my entire research agenda and career path? Definitely not me, but I am glad that it did. Ken Meier, the opportunities you’ve provided me over the years are unrivaled. When people find out that I’m a “Ken student," I sense a tinge of jealousy because they know that being a “Ken student" means having access to an abundance of opportunities, support, and resources. I realize that these things don’t just appear out of thin air and you work hard to v ensure that your students are successful. Thank you for investing in me. Maria Escobar- Lemmon, you have contributed so much to my development as a scholar. Many of my best research ideas have come out of our casual conversations about the way the world works. Thanks for your countless insightful thoughts and valuable input to my research. I would not have been able to survive without the support of the friends I made while in graduate school. Mallory, Brad, Carla, Abhi, Nick, Mitch, Brian, Thiago, Seung-Ho, Kris- ten, Polly: one of the best rewards of graduate school is that I met all of you. I’m happy to belong to the best cohort ever along with Andy Philips, David Switzer, and Nathan Favero. Friends and colleagues at my current home institution, Arizona State University, provided social and emotional support throughout my final year of dissertating. While I don’t know how long ASU will be my home, I look forward to cultivating these relation- ships and collaborating with the talented scholars here. To my Charms girls, especially Haley Parker and Adriana Meza, though we don’t see each other as often as I’d like, your love and friendship give me strength. I am thankful to come from a large family that—though crazy at times—is a continued source of support, inspiration, and happiness. Daddio, thanks for passing on your name so that I could one day become Dr. Funk. If this academic thing doesn’t work out, this increases my likelihood of finding work as a d.j. Mom, you are such a strong woman. I probably haven’t told you how much I admire your strength and ability to cope with any situation that life throws your way. I’m thankful that you’re my momma and pray that I inherited your strength. My brothers and sisters and their little ones bring so much joy to my life. Holly, April, and Heidi: The laughter and love, as well as hardship and pain, that we’ve shared over the years has molded me into the woman I am today. Growing up with all of you was a gift that I cherish deeply. Thank you for the abundance of encouragement, support, and love you all have given to me. I have no doubt that I have the best sisters in the world. vi Last, but definitely not least, is Angel. I can’t imagine what my life would look like now if I hadn’t met you five years ago at the beginning of my graduate school career. I’m thankful that I ignored everyone who told me not to date another political scientist. Your daily love and support sustain me. I am especially grateful for your support throughout this emotional rollercoaster of a year. This year—between moving to Arizona, teaching for the first time, being on the job market, writing a dissertation, and wrapping up my graduate studies—has been a particularly difficult one for me. This is no surprise for you because you were there with me every step of the way. I am immensely grateful to have you in my life. vii CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES Contributors This work was supported by a dissertation committee consisting of Professors Maria Escobar-Lemmon, Kenneth J. Meier, and Michelle Taylor-Robinson of the Department of Political Science and Professor Justin Bullock of the Bush School of Government and Public Service. The data presented in Chapter 1 were provided by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, No Ceilings: The Full Participation Project, the Gender Equality Observatory of Latin America and the Caribbean, and Farida Jalalzai. The data analyzed in Chapter 2 were provided by the Gender Equality Observatory of Latin America and the Caribbean, the Comparative Constitutions Project, the Quota Project, the World Bank, United Cities and Local Governments, and No Ceilings: The Full Participation Project. The data an- alyzed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 were provided by the Brazilian federal government, specifically the Tribunal Superior Eleitoral, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, and the Tesouro Nacional. Additional data used in Chapter 4 were provided by Brian Wampler, Leonardo Avritzer, and Paolo Spada. Chapter 4 was published in Political Re- search Quarterly in 2015 (volume 68, number 3). All work for the dissertation was com- pleted independently by the author. Funding Sources Graduate study was supported by a fellowship from Texas A&M University and the Vision 2020 Fellowship from the College of Liberal Arts at Texas A&M University. The Summertime for Advancement in Research Award from Texas A&M University provided funding for dissertation research in the summer of 2016.