Interrogation—World II, War Vietnam and Iraq NDIC Press Interrogation World War II Vietnam and Iraq PCN 12010 national defense intelligence college Interrogation World War II, Vietnam, and Iraq NATIONAL DEFENSE INTELLIGENCE COLLEGE WASHINGTON, DC September 2008 Th e views expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not refl ect the offi cial policy or position of the Department of Defense, the Defense Intelligence Agency, or any other agency of the U.S. Government. Th e National Defense Intelligence College supports and encourages research on intelligence issues that distills lessons and improves Intelligence Community capabilities to policy-level and operational consumers Interrogation: World War II, Vietnam, and Iraq Th is book presents the work of three NDIC graduate students. All three worked under Professor John A. Wahlquist of the College, with external guidance from a group of scholars and recognized subject matter experts under the leadership of Dr. Robert A. Fein of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Th e book follows the NDIC Press’s Educing Information – Interrogation: Science and Art, Foundations for the Future. By adding historical and practical context going back to U.S. policy and practice in interrogations during World War II, the Vietnam confl ict, and the ongoing war in Iraq, this newest volume contributes to the high-profi le public dialogue on how U.S. military and civilian agencies can best obtain information from prisoners of war and other categories of legal and illegal combatants without compromising the principles upon which the nation was founded. Th is publication has been approved for unrestricted distribution by the Offi ce of Security Review, Department of Defense. Th e editor acknowledges the gracious assistance of D. Lee Galloway III of the College’s John T. Hughes Library, who was indispensable in obtaining copyright clearances for the illustrations in this book. Electronic copies of this and other Center publications are available at http://www.ndic.edu. For more information on this or other publications contact the editor at the address below or by commercial phone at (202) 231-4193. ii | [email protected], Editor Center for Strategic Intelligence Research ISBN 978-1-932946-23-9 Library of Congress Control Number 2008933262 CONTENTS FOREWORD . .v COMMENTARY . vii INTRODUCTION . .1 Mr. John A. Wahlquist, NDIC Faculty Interrogation of Japanese POWs in World War II: U.S. Response to a Formidable Challenge . 17 Special Agent James A. Stone, U.S. Air Force Unveiling Charlie: U.S. Interrogators’ Creative Successes Against Insurgents . 77 Special Agent David P. Shoemaker, U.S. Air Force Th e Accidental Interrogator: A Case Study and Review of U.S. Army Special Forces Interrogations . 147 Major Nicholas R. Dotti, U.S. Army APPENDIXES . .217-236 BIBLIOGRAPHY . .237 INDEX . 249 ABOUT THE AUTHORS . 253 | iii FOREWORD Robert A. Fein, Ph.D. Member, Intelligence Science Board Chairman, ISB Study on Educing Information In September 2004, the Intelligence Science Board, an advisory board appointed by the Director of National Intelligence, initiated the Study on Educ- ing Information (EI). Th is study is an ongoing eff ort to review what is known scientifi cally about interrogation and other forms of human intelligence collec- tion and to chart a path to the future. As part of our eff orts, we have worked closely with faculty and students of the National Defense Intelligence College. Th e NDIC Press published Educing Information: Interrogation: Science and Art, Foundations for the Future, a book based on Phase I of the Study on EI. Th ree students, Special Agent James Stone, U.S. Air Force; Special Agent David Shoemaker, U.S. Air Force; and Major Nicholas Dotti, U.S. Army, completed master’s thesis studies during Academic Year 2006-07 on topics related to interrogation. Each thesis is a remarkable and useful document. Special Agent Stone researched U.S. eff orts during World War II to develop language and interrogation capacities to deal with our Japanese enemy. He found that military leaders, oft en working with civilian counterparts, cre- ated and implemented successful strategies, building on cultural and linguistic skills that substantially aided the war eff ort for the U.S. and its Allies. Special Agent Shoemaker studied the experiences of three successful interrogators during the Vietnam War. Like S/A Stone, S/A Shoemaker suggests that policymakers and practitioners have much to learn from professionals who served eff ectively for years in the fi eld educing information. And like Stone, Shoemaker highlights the importance of a deep understanding of the language, psychology, and culture of adversaries and potential allies in other countries. Major Dotti examined recent policy and practice with regard to tactical | v and fi eld interrogations, especially with regard to the eff orts of Special Forces soldiers in Iraq. He concludes that the “letter” of current doctrine contradicts its “intent.” Major Dotti off ers recommendations that he believes are both consis- tent with the intent of military doctrine and likely to increase the eff ectiveness of U.S. interrogation practices in the fi eld. Each of these studies demonstrates that thoughtful, pragmatic research can produce stimulating and useful knowledge that may aid 21st century deci- sion-makers. Together these reports suggest that, by looking at both the distant and recent past, planners and operators can gain insights that may lead to future successes in educing information from adversaries. In publishing these studies, the National Defense Intelligence College continues to serve the military, law enforcement, and intelligence communities, and the nation in general, by supporting and disseminating information and perspectives that sharpen and improve our thinking in key national security arenas. vi | COMMENTARY Mr. Bryan Vossekuil Member, ISB Study on Educing Information From ad hoc Interrogation to an Educing Information Profession? Q: Has the U.S. faced an adversary in the past that appeared unusually and confoundingly alien? Q: Can one persuade such an adversary to provide useful information aft er capture? Q: Can valuable information be obtained using interrogation methods that are consonant with American values? Can one build an eff ective opera- tional accord with an exceedingly diffi cult adversary? Are there successful examples from the past that speak to these questions? Q: Has the U.S. ever had a successful, government-wide, systems approach to educing information—that is, to interrogation? Th e answers to these questions all seem to be “yes.” Special Agent Stone tells us that the Japanese were seen as a formidable and “otherworldly” adversary in 1941. Th e U.S. was poorly prepared to face such an adversary. Few military or civilian Americans spoke Japanese, which was regarded by many as an impossible language (in 1940, for example, the Navy had only a dozen sailors and offi cers regarded as fully profi cient in Japa- nese). Th ere were few Americans who understood the culture and psychology of Japan, which was seen as profoundly alien. Th e Japanese soldier seemed to fi ght with religious zeal, was willing to be a kamikaze pilot (a suicide bomber), and was feared as one who would rather die than be captured. Gathering vital intelligence through interrogation under these circumstances seemed a nearly impossible challenge. Developing a national program to do so seemed even | vii harder. Th rough cooperation of military and civilian counterparts, such a program was created during WW II—a program so successful that it is credited, by some observers, with shortening the war in the Pacifi c by two years. Th is program was founded upon knowledge of Japanese culture and psychology, language profi - ciency—and pointedly humane treatment of those captured. Its success was also largely due to a decision, controversial at the time, to employ Nisei interrogators. Th is experience, as described by Special Agent Stone in his essay, implicitly invites comparison to our current confl icts in Iraq and elsewhere. Special Agent Shoemaker details U.S. interrogation eff orts in the insurgent confl ict in Vietnam—another confl ict in which our country encountered chal- lenges in understanding the enemy’s culture and language. He provides case studies of successful counterinsurgency interrogators. Using their experiences, he describes eff ective interrogation strategies and highlights a handful of successful interrogators. Interestingly, in a number of examples cited, success seemed to be generated at least in part by what happened outside the interrogation session. Th ese stories remind the reader of the power of appealing to individual interests and of cultural under- standing, in forming a personal relationship or building an operational accord in order to get information. Shoemaker also argues that our reputation in the interna- tional community is strongly infl uenced by our interrogation practices. Major Dotti—a highly trained member of Army Special Forces— called himself the “Accidental Interrogator.” He off ers a fi rst-person account of some of the challenges of fi eld interrogations in the current confl ict in Iraq. He raises specifi c questions about authorization, preparation, and over- sight of interrogations in the fi eld. What is really appropriate? Who is best suited to conduct fi eld interrogations when there are serious time impera- tives? How ought interrogators be trained and supported? Do we need some modifi cation of war plans and doctrine to plan for the future? Th e three essays taken together remind us that our nation has lost sight of some of the wisdom of the past. Th e reader may refl ect on whether the U.S. needs a government-wide systems approach and long-term strategic plan- ning for future intelligence-driven interviewing eff orts. Th ere are many diffi cult questions for the future that touch on interrogation, educing information, and intelligence interviewing.