RENTIERISM AND POLITICAL CULTURE IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES THE CASE OF UAEU STUDENTS Submitted by Marta Saldaña Martín, to the University of Exeter as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Middle East Politics, June 2014. (Under dual supervision with Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) Supervisors: Dr. Marc Valeri & Dr. Ana I. Planet Contreras This dissertation is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this dissertation which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. (Signature)………………………………………………. 1 Abstract This dissertation discusses United Arab Emirates (UAE) state-society relations in historical perspective; analyses qualitatively the Emirati political culture; examines how the latter affects governmental policies in the UAE; and evaluates both qualitatively and quantitatively the political orientations and values of the Emirati educated youth. Through a discussion of existing theoretical and conceptual approaches, and the observation of the UAE case study, it argues that an important and overlooked dimension among students of state-society relations in authoritarian rentier states is citizens’ political culture, which should nonetheless be examined within a more integrative framework of analysis. Accordingly, this study employs a refined version of the holistic ‘state-in-society’ approach (Kamrava, 2008), in combination with rentier state theory (RST) and the political culture perspective (Almond & Verba, 1963), to qualitatively discuss the general Emirati political culture (agency/input), and assess how the latter affects governmental performance/policies (output); and to evaluate, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the political culture of the educated Emirati youth as the main potential supporters or opponents (agency/input) of the ruling elite. Adding to the debate around the continued significance and scope of RST, the dissertation concludes that the rentier nature of a state does not necessarily determine its people´s lack of interest in politics, but can actually empower them to challenge authoritarianism through political socialization. The historical approach to UAE political movements and discussion about contemporary political standpoints demonstrate that governmental policies (redistributive, co-optative, repressive, or reformist) are mainly driven by domestic pressure and run parallel to historical development of domestic political activism. Hence, rentierism by itself does is not sufficient to explain state- society relations in the Gulf region. Finally, the analysis and measurement of cognitive, affective and evaluative political orientations of Emirati UAEU students reflects that there is adherence to ‘post- materialistic’ and ‘self-expression’ values among important sectors of the Emirati educated youth, which are associated with the emergence of a participative political culture (Inglehart & Welzel, 2005): an ‘aspiring participant’ political culture. 2 3 A Luciano, por acompañarme en este largo camino. A mi hermana, mi padre y mi abue, por siempre estar ahí cuando les necesito. Y a mi madre, a quien siempre tengo presente, aunque ya no esté entre nosotros. Acknowledgments First of all, I would like to thank my dear supervisors, Ana and Marc, for guiding and supporting me along the PhD journey, as well as my former supervisor, Gerd Nonneman, for accompanying me at the initial stages of this research. Second, I am grateful to those who have kindly commented sections of my work, especially to my sister and husband, as I am to all other friends that have been there for me all along. I am indebted too to the UAEU professors who aided me in the design of the survey questionnaire, and other fieldwork arrangements, during my stay at their institution. Last, but not least, I will never forget the help of my adored Emirati friends, who not only opened to me their minds but also their hearts, and who are always ready to help me when I need it. To you all, I owe you big time! 4 5 Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... 4 Table of figures and tables ...................................................................................... 8 Table of annexes ................................................................................................... 10 Translation and Transliteration Note ..................................................................... 12 SUMMARY IN SPANISH .............................................................................................. 14 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 20 CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK ................ 22 1. RATIONALE AND STRUCTURE ................................................................................... 22 2. THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................... 25 2.1. The end of the transitology paradigm? ........................................................... 25 2.2. Explaining MENA’s authoritarianism .............................................................. 29 2.3. Explaining Gulf regime stability through rentierism ........................................ 32 2.4. The political culture perspective ..................................................................... 38 2.5. Literature on the UAE case ............................................................................ 45 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 47 3.1. Surveying the Middle East .............................................................................. 49 3.2. The survey: obstacles faced and implementation .......................................... 51 3.3. The design of the questionnaire ..................................................................... 53 3.4 Preliminary analysis of data ............................................................................. 55 3.5 The statistical tests run .................................................................................... 58 PART I STATE AND SOCIETY IN THE UAE .............................................................. 60 CHAPTER 2: UAE SOCIETY: FROM TRIBAL TO GLOBALISED? ........................... 62 1. THE PRE-BRITISH TRIBAL SETTING ........................................................................... 62 2. A TRADITIONALLY GLOBALISED SOCIETY ................................................................... 71 3. UAE STATE FORMATION AND POLITICAL SYSTEM ..................................................... 78 4. UAE STATECRAFT: CITIZENSHIP AND NATIONAL IDENTITY ........................................ 88 5. UAE SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ................................................................................. 97 6. RENTIERISM AND POLITICAL SOCIALISATION IN THE UAE ........................................ 112 6.1. Political socialisation within the Emirati family .............................................. 116 6.2. Political socialisation through education ....................................................... 119 6.3. Political socialisation through the media ....................................................... 124 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 129 CHAPTER 3: RULERS APPROACH TO POLITICAL SOCIALISATION .................. 130 1. HISTORICAL POLITICAL ACTIVISM IN THE UAE ......................................................... 130 1.1. The Dubai reform movement ........................................................................ 131 1.2. The Dubai National Front ............................................................................. 133 1.3. The Memorandum Movement ...................................................................... 136 1.4. The UAE Muslim Brotherhood ...................................................................... 137 1.5. Other pro-reform movements ....................................................................... 140 2. POLITICAL STANDPOINTS IN CONTEMPORARY UAE ................................................. 142 3. TOWARDS POLITICAL LIBERALISATION? .................................................................. 150 3.1. Law amendments ......................................................................................... 156 3.2. The Electoral Experiment ............................................................................. 162 4. THE POST-ARAB SPRING LANDSCAPE .................................................................... 177 6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 189 PART II: UAE POLITICAL CULTURE: THE CASE OF UAEU STUDENTS ............. 192 CHAPTER 4: POLITICAL INTEREST AND CONCERNS ......................................... 196 1. POLITICAL INTEREST ............................................................................................. 197 2. KNOWLEDGE OF POLITICS .....................................................................................