RADIOECOLOGY , RADIOACTIVITY AND ECOSYSTEMS A short presentation of a publication of the Union Internationale de Radioécologie E. Van der Stricht 1, R. Kirchmann 2 1 -UIR fellow, Honorary Director of the European Commission, Luxembourg 2 -UIR Honorary General Secretary, University of Liège, Belgium 1 INTRODUCTION After the Second World War, considerable progress was made in the field of Radioecology, as there was a pressing need to provide answers to a host of practical questions raised by the military and civilian use of nuclear power in matters such as: S The risk of environmental radiocontamination from military nuclear fuel cycle activities (i.e., plutonium reactors at Hanford in the US and similar installations in the former USSR; S The health and environmental consequences of nuclear weapons testing and of the resulting global radioactive fall-out, (concerns about this led eventually to the 1963 treaty banning testing in the atmosphere and the ocean); S The potential consequences of nuclear war such as the destruction of the radiosensitive boreal forests (not to speak of the 'nuclear winter' and the resulting food shortage at the global level); S The environmental impact of peaceful applications of nuclear energy, mainly electricity generation (routine operations and reactor accidents), nuclear excavations (especially in the former USSR but also in the USA). This book is the outcome of a long-standing project of the International Union of Radioecology (registered name, UIR, Union Internationale de Radioécologie). The project was launched in 1992 by the late UIR President Stan Myttenaere, with the help of a number of dedicated members. Norman Pattenden was the editor and he did the fundamental initial work of setting up discussions with the contributors as well as taking the responsibility to write two sections. Sadly, he also didn't live to see the book published. Inevitable delays ensued. They have been beneficial for one thing. It allowed including recent advances. But, surely enough, the book retained most features of the initial endeavours and it is in this respect a testimony for the continuing evolution of thoughts in radioecology. It sees the light at the crucial time of the now outstanding re-evaluation of radioecology as such. 2 ABOUT THE BOOK The present textbook is designed to help in the education of trainee radioecologists. The target reader is considered to be a student having obtained his first degree. Thus the book is meant as an introduction to Radioecology, intended to provide a broad radioecological background. However, it includes more than 800 references to the original research papers and to the advanced literature. The book aims at maintaining and safeguarding expertise acquired in the field of radioecological studies. Emphasis is put on theoretical and technical aspects such as environmental sampling techniques and modelling of dispersion and transport of radionuclides in the environment. This expertise should remain of essential concern to authorities and operators in the nuclear energy sector. The book should also provide guidance to those in charge of radiation protection and environmental radiation monitoring programmes. Furthermore, the book intends to assist decision-makers, authorities at national and local level, in the evaluation of post-accidental radiological situations. The book should help to put into perspective the appropriateness of the counter-measures enforced after large-scale environmental contamination events. Therefore it addresses in particular agronomists, soil scientists, zootechnicians, phytotechnicians and others concerned by the reduction of the radioactive contamination of the food web and hence the reduction of exposure of man and biota. It may also help individuals carrying responsibilities in the follow-up of the doses delivered to living organisms in the vicinity of radioactive waste disposal sites. Finally the book provides reference reading for nuclear industry managers as well as engineers and scientists who want to increase their knowledge with respect to Radioecology. Lecturers and readers in the life sciences may find it a useful source of information. Radioecology is such a broad area of study, encompassing many of the life, earth and physical sciences that it would be difficult to find an individual capable of writing with authority on the subject as a whole. For this book, it has been possible to obtain the services of many authors with international reputations in their own field, most of them IUR members, to write the various chapters and sections of the book. Chapter I starts with an historical perspective of the development of radioecology followed by a description of the principles underlying radioactivity and ecology. Chapter II describes the main sources, both natural and artificial, of the radioactivity with which the subsequent chapters are concerned. Thus Chapters I and II are largely introductory in scope and provide a background to the subject. Chapters III, IV, discuss in some detail Radioecology in the terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments and hence constitute the backbone of the book. They include descriptions of transport mechanisms between different media and organisms in each environment. The effects of radiation on different organisms and ecosystems are discussed in Chapters V, VI, and VII. Chapters VIII and IX deal with topics of considerable interest, which require the application of some radioecological principles in order to understand the governing mechanisms. They include the pathways of radioactivity and radiation to man, the management of the releases of radioactivity to the environment and possible countermeasures designed to minimise effects of radioactivity spills. Decision aiding techniques are introduced. Practical information is provided in the appendices. Appendix 1 and 2 give some analytical, measurement and sampling techniques. The remaining appendices include among other, material from the recent publication 65 of ICRU and a glossary. A short synopsis is given in table 1 Table 1: Outline and authors Foreword Ph. Bourdeau Preface A. Cigna Chapter I Introduction. 1.1 Historical perspective A. Cigna, R. Kirchmann, R. Alexakhin 1.2 An introduction to ecology J. Calembert 1.3 An introduction to Radioactivity N. Pattenden Chapter II Sources of ionising radiation in the environment 2.1 Natural radioactivity N. Pattenden 2.2 Manmade Radioactivity A. Aarkrog Chapter III Dispersion and transfer in the terrestrial environment 3.1 Atmospheric dispersion and deposition B. Smith 3.2 Chemical forms of radiocaesium and radiostrontium in Chernobyl deposition A. Konoplev 3.3 Chemical forms of radionuclides and their quantification in environmental samples J. Hilton, R.Comans 3.4 Transfers in agricultural and semi-natural environments 3.4.1 Transfer in Soil-Plant systems G. Shaw, J. Bell 3.4.2 Transfers in the forest ecosystem W. Schell, I. Linkov 3.4.3 Transfer to animals B. Howard, G. Voigt , N.A. Beresford Technetium transfer C Vandecasteele, G Gerber Tritium transfer R. Kirchmann 3.5 Environmental behaviour of tritium 3.5.1 Tritium transport processes from stack to soil C. Bunnenberg 3.5.2 Tritium transfer into plants and animals Y. Belot Chapter IV Dispersion and transfer in the aquatic environment Introduction L. Foulquier, JP. Baudin, M. Pally 4.1 Dispersion 4.1.1 Fresh water environment J. Hilton 4.1.2 Marine environment L. Léon Vitro, P. Mitchell, S. Nielsen 4.2 Transfers 4.2.1 Transfers in the continental water environment 4.2.1A Field studies, monitoring L. Foulquier, JP. Baudin, M. Pally 4.2.1B Radionuclide accumulation in aquatic organisms. Concepts R. Blust and models 4.3 Microbial activity and the fate of radionuclides in the river system J. Remacle, F. Hambuckers-Berhin 4.3.1 The role of micro-organisms in the fluxes of radionuclides 4.3.2 Experimental approaches Chapter V Effects of ionising radiation on aquatic and terrestrial organisms F. Harrison, J. Knezovich 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Stages in the development and modification of radiation injury 5.3 Effects of high doses and high dose rates of radiation on individuals 5.4 Effects of low doses and low dose rates on individuals 5.5 Standards for the protection of wildlife Chapter VI Effects of ionising radiation on ecosystems R. Alexakhin 6.1 Health of populations and ecosystems 6.2 Response to exposure 6.3 Radioecological situations for study of effects 6.4 Radioecological investigations following nuclear accidents 6.5 Irradiation under controlled conditions 6.6 Influence of combined effects of environmental factors 6.7 Radio-resistance ranges and dose limits 6.8 Conclusions Chapter VII Assessing the radiological impact of releases to the environment M. Thorne 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Modelling radionuclide distribution and transport 7.3 Estimating radiation exposure 7.4 Effects of ionising radiation on man 7.5 Bibliography Chapter VIII Management of radioactive releases to the environment P. Coughtrey 8.1 Sources of artificial radionuclides from the nuclear industry 8.2 Routine releases 8.3 Conclusions Chapter IX Accidental releases and countermeasures 9.1 Experience obtained from previous accidents P. Coughtrey 9.2 Countermeasures P. Coughtrey 9.3 Special circumstances P. Coughtrey 9.4 Environmental management and countermeasures P. Coughtrey 9.5 Decision aiding techniques J. Lochard, Th Schneider Appendices Appendix 1 Detection and measurement of radioactivity N. Pattenden Appendix 2 Principles of sampling and analytical methodology B. Wilkins Appendix 3