After Kiyozawa: A Study of Shin Buddhist Modernization, 1890-1956 by Jeff Schroeder Department of Religious Studies Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Richard Jaffe, Supervisor ___________________________ James Dobbins ___________________________ Hwansoo Kim ___________________________ Simon Partner ___________________________ Leela Prasad Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Religious Studies in the Graduate School of Duke University 2015 ABSTRACT After Kiyozawa: A Study of Shin Buddhist Modernization, 1890-1956 by Jeff Schroeder Department of Religious Studies Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Richard Jaffe, Supervisor ___________________________ James Dobbins ___________________________ Hwansoo Kim ___________________________ Simon Partner ___________________________ Leela Prasad An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Religious Studies in the Graduate School of Duke University 2015 Copyright by Jeff Schroeder 2015 Abstract This dissertation examines the modern transformation of orthodoxy within the Ōtani denomination of Japanese Shin Buddhism. This history was set in motion by scholar-priest Kiyozawa Manshi (1863-1903), whose calls for free inquiry, introspection, and attainment of awakening in the present life represented major challenges to the prevailing orthodoxy. Judging him a principal player in forging a distinctively modern Buddhism, many scholars have examined Kiyozawa’s life and writings. However, it is critical to recognize that during his life Kiyozawa remained a marginal figure within his sect, his various reform initiatives ending in failure. It was not until 1956 that Ōtani leaders officially endorsed and disseminated Kiyozawa’s views. Taking my cue from Talal Asad’s critique of Clifford Geertz’s definition of religion, I move beyond interpretation of the “meaning” of Kiyozawa’s life and writings to the historical study of how they came to be invested with authority, impacting the lives of millions of sect members and influencing the perception of him among scholars. I approach this history on three levels. On an individual level, I examine the lives and writings of Kiyozawa, his followers, and their critics, as revealed in their books, journal articles, newspaper articles, diaries, and letters. On an institutional level, I examine the transformation of the Ōtani organization’s educational, administrative, and judicial systems, as documented in institutional histories, denominational by-laws, official statements, and administrators’ iv writings. Finally, on a national level, I examine the effect of major political events and social trends on Kiyozawa’s followers and the Ōtani organization. This study reveals that one critical factor in the transformation of Ōtani orthodoxy was the strategic use of a discourse of “empiricism” by Kiyozawa’s followers, especially Soga Ryōjin and Kaneko Daiei. As the Ōtani organization’s modern university gradually came to supercede its traditional seminary, Soga and Kaneko positioned themselves as authoritative modern scholars. At the same time, this study shows that the transformation of Ōtani orthodoxy was contingent upon broader historical developments far outside the control of Kiyozawa’s followers or Ōtani leaders. Specifically, the state’s persecution of Communists, war mobilization policies, and the postwar context of democracy building all shaped the views and fortunes of Kiyozawa’s followers. I argue that by better acknowledging and examining the contingent nature of religious history, scholars can approach a more realistic view of how religions are formed and reformed. Specifically in regard to modern Buddhist studies, I also argue that more attention should be paid to how sectarian institutions continue to grow and evolve, shaping all aspects of Buddhist thought and practice. v For my mother, Martha Schroeder, who inspired my curiosity in religion vi Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. x List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xi Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. xii Introduction: The Symbol of Kiyozawa .............................................................................1 Goals of Dissertation ..................................................................................................................... 3 Representations of Kiyozawa .................................................................................................... 9 Memorialization ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Social Critique ................................................................................................................................................. 17 Doctrinal Critique .......................................................................................................................................... 18 Sectarian Scholarship ................................................................................................................................... 21 Non-Sectarian Scholarship ......................................................................................................................... 24 Contemporary Scholarship ........................................................................................................................ 29 Foreign Scholarship ...................................................................................................................................... 35 Approach of Dissertation .......................................................................................................... 38 Outline of Dissertation Chapters .......................................................................................... 43 1. From Faith to Experience: Kiyozawa Manshi and the Defense of Religion (1890-1903) ............................................................................................................................ 51 1.1 Experience ................................................................................................................................ 51 1.2 Early writings: “Skeleton of a Philosophy of Religion” ...................................... 59 A Subjectivist Approach to Religion ....................................................................................................... 59 Reason’s Reliance on Faith ......................................................................................................................... 68 Scientific Experiment, Religious Experiment ...................................................................................... 73 1.3 Middle Writings: Two Diaries .......................................................................................... 77 “December Fan Diary” ................................................................................................................................. 78 “Notes on the Finite and the Infinite” ................................................................................................... 83 1.4 Later Writings: Seishinshugi Publications ................................................................ 86 A Subjectivist Approach to Religion ....................................................................................................... 87 Reason’s Reliance on Faith ......................................................................................................................... 91 Scientific Experience, Religious Experience ........................................................................................ 94 1.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 104 2. From Experience to Empiricism: Kiyozawa’s Followers and the Academic Study of Buddhism (1903-1930) ................................................................................... 110 2.1 Problems With Experience ............................................................................................. 111 vii 2.2 Buddhism and Education in Modern Japan ............................................................ 117 2.3. Shaping Kiyozawa’s Legacy .......................................................................................... 127 2.4 The Birth of Shin Buddhist Studies ........................................................................... 139 Background .................................................................................................................................................... 139 Sasaki Gesshō ................................................................................................................................................. 141 Soga Ryōjin ....................................................................................................................................................