The Apprentice’s Tale: entry to multiple communities of practice for working class boys PhD Robert George Galvani Institute of Education, University College London ‘I, Robert George Galvani confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis.’ ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 Abstract This small scale, qualitative study examines the apprenticeship experiences of a group of working class young men from the London area during the years 1959-1989, to determine the impact of those experiences on the formation of their adult, male, self-identities. The research contributes to current debates and literature on apprenticeships, youth transitions, masculinity, social class and identity. It records as social history the recollections of ten ex-apprentices from the telecommunications and construction industries (five from each sector) and includes evidence of how they chose their apprenticeships. Data consists of participants’ memories collected as oral histories during semi-structured interviews, and from written answers to pre-interview questionnaires. The research was designed to ascertain the impact of their apprenticeships on the construction of the participants’ adult identities as defined by the concept of ‘standard adulthood’ (Parsons, 1971). This I describe as a series of interconnecting communities of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998), into which the participants entered as legitimate peripheral participants. Drawing on situated learning theory (Lave and Wenger, 1991), I contend that their post-war apprenticeships were part of a social and cultural institution that continued to serve as an integrative vehicle for the attainment of the ‘classic markers of adulthood’ (Blatterer, 2007a; 2007b) as a ‘life apprenticeship’, and through participation in diverse adult social worlds enabled them to become full participants in society (Goodwin, 2007). This thesis also examines the influence of social factors such as families, education and class on the participants’ school to work transitions. The research reveals a noticeable difference in the ways that these factors determined the two participant groups’ choice of apprenticeship. Drawing on social reproduction theory and the concept of cultural capital (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990 ), I reveal the extent that family and social class played in deciding the participants’ future life courses. 3 For my grandchildren 4 Acknowledgements I would like to give my heartfelt thanks to my supervision team for all their support and encouragement over the past six years. Professors Jane Martin and Lorna Unwin provided excellent guidance and advice for the first few years of my research, and were ably relieved of this task by Professor Alison Fuller and Doctor Janet Broad. My thanks go to all, but in particular Alison and Janet, who have seen me through some difficult times in the past few years and finally over the finish line. I apologise to all for being such an inept and extremely difficult student. Thanks also to my friend, the late Julie Waterson, for encouraging me to carry on when early doubts clouded my mind. I would also like to thank the participants in this research-my ‘friend-informants’, who must have thought that I had lost my sanity in attempting such a task as this. Finally, my thanks go to my wife Barbara, my sons Robert and Thomas, and all of my grandchildren who have had to suffer my bad moods, anxieties, frustrations and general irritability over the past six years. None of this could be achieved without your love and support. I can now finally start to decorate our new house. 5 Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. 5 Contents ............................................................................................................. 6 Figures, Tables and Pictures ........................................................................... 9 Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................... 10 1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 10 1.2 Rationale for thesis .................................................................................. 14 1.3 Research focus and questions ................................................................ 17 1.4 Overview of the thesis structure .............................................................. 18 Chapter 2 Historical Context ............................................................................. 22 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 22 2.2 Historically situating the research ............................................................ 23 2.2.1 The evolution of English apprenticeships .......................................... 23 2.2.2 Post-Second World War to late 20th century: compulsory education in England and Wales .................................................................................... 42 2.2.3 The Economy and the Youth Labour Market ..................................... 50 2.3 Summary ................................................................................................. 57 Chapter 3: Apprenticeship as a social theory of learning and identity formation: A Review of the Literature ................................................................................. 58 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 58 3.2 Understanding the self in the social world ............................................... 59 3.2.1 Social theories of identity ................................................................... 60 3.2.2 Social class and identity .................................................................... 64 3.2.3 The diverse forms of capital .............................................................. 70 3.2.4 Bounded agency ............................................................................... 76 3.2.5 Childhood, ‘standard adulthood’ and ‘hegemonic masculinity’ .......... 79 3.3 Apprenticeship as a social theory of learning .......................................... 84 3.3.1 Apprenticeship as a model of social learning .................................... 85 3.3.2 Situated learning theory ..................................................................... 87 3.3.3 Legitimate peripheral participation ..................................................... 90 3.3.4 Communities of practice .................................................................... 92 3.3.5 A critical analysis of situated learning theory ..................................... 96 3.3.6 Entry to multiple communities of practice as a legitimate peripheral participant ................................................................................................... 99 3.4 Summary ............................................................................................... 102 6 Chapter 4: Work and Society .......................................................................... 104 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 104 4.2 The relationship between work and society ........................................... 105 4.2.1 The meaning of work ....................................................................... 106 4.2.2 Classical approaches to work and the division of labour ................. 117 4.2.3 Work’s changing relationship to society and the formation of self ... 122 4.3 The workplace as a crucible of working class masculinity ..................... 128 4.4 Summary ............................................................................................... 132 Chapter 5: Methodology .................................................................................. 134 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 134 5.2 Ontological and epistemological approach ............................................ 135 5.3 The research sample ............................................................................. 137 5.4 Principal data collection method ............................................................ 144 5.4.1 Oral history ...................................................................................... 144 5.4.2 Single-issue testimony ..................................................................... 152 5.4.3 Insider research ............................................................................... 153 5.5 Interview structure and analysis of data ................................................. 161 5.6 Ethical considerations ............................................................................ 167 Chapter 6: Getting a trade: first steps ............................................................. 170 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 170 6.2 Becoming an apprentice ........................................................................ 171 6.2.1 Securing an apprenticeship ............................................................