Conquering the Highlands A history of the afforestation of the Scottish uplands K. Jan Oosthoek Conquering the Highlands A history of the afforestation of the Scottish uplands K. Jan Oosthoek World Forest History Series Published by ANU E Press The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Email: [email protected] This title is also available online at http://epress.anu.edu.au The World Forest History Series publishes authoritative histories analysing the institutional, intellectual and environmental impacts of professional and state forestry, with a special but not exclusive focus on colonial forestry and its legacies. Each book, published in hardcopy and available as an electronic copy for download, is available free to scholars and the public around the world. The World Forest History Series has long been a dream of many foresters and historians who wanted a single series to document and analyze the unique global and local histories of forestry. The World Forest History Series is dedicated to the foresters who played a seminal roles in starting and directing the global environmental movement; because of these efforts many of the world’s forests still remain. Series Editors: Gregory A Barton, Research Fellow, Centre for Environmental History, The Australian National University; Brett M Bennett, Lecturer in History, University of Western Sydney. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Author: Oosthoek, Jan. Title: Conquering the Highlands : a history of the afforestation of the Scottish uplands / Jan Oosthoek. ISBN: 9781922144782 (pbk.) 9781922144799 (ebook) Notes: Includes bibliographical references. Subjects: Afforestation--Scotland. Afforestation--Environmental aspects--Scotland. Forests and forestry--Scotland. Sustainable forestry--Scotland. Scotland--History. Dewey Number: 634.95609411 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Cover image: Ploughing in Achray Forest, ca. 1951. David B Paterson, from http://forestry- memories.org.uk with permission. Cover design and layout by ANU E Press Printed by Griffin Press This edition © 2013 ANU E Press Contents List of figures . .vii List of tables . viii List of maps . viii List of acronyms . ix Preface . xiii Introduction . 1 1. The nature and development of the forests since the last ice age . 11 2. Scottish forestry in the 19th century . 33 3. The upland question . 51 4. Post-war policy: The end of the strategic reserve . 71 5. Contradictions in the forests: Economics versus conservation . 81 6. Landscape aesthetics, conservation and public access before 1940 . 95 7. Landscape aesthetics, conservation and public access after 1940 . 115 8. Foresters as naturalists . 131 9. The end of monoculture forestry . 149 10. The past and the future . 169 List of people interviewed . 179 Glossary of terms . 181 Glossary of common and scientific names of tree species . 185 Archival collections consulted . 187 Select bibliography . 189 v List of figures 1 Glen Croe with forest plantations ca. 2005. 1 2 Acquisition of plantable land by the Forestry Commission in 5 Scotland, England and Wales, 1920–1980 1.1 Four-thousand-year-old tree remains at Loch an Alltan Fheàrna, 16 Sutherland, northern Scotland. 1.2 The Lorn Furnace at Bonawe on the banks of Loch Etive. 28 2.1 Log Floaters on the River Spey, ca. 1900. 35 3.1 Scots pine in Glen Affric. 58 3.2 Sitka spruce plantation. 60 3.3 Loch Ossian and the Corrour plantations. 62 3.4 Belgium system for planting on peat. 63 3.5 Experimental ploughing on the Lon Mor, ca. 1927. 66 3.6 Mechanical ploughing at Glenbranter in the early 1970s. 68 3.7 Aerial fertilising by helicopter. 69 4.1 Even-aged high forest Scots pine plantation. 74 5.1 Number of camper nights on Forestry Commission campsites, 89 1950–1975. 5.2 Expenditure and income for recreational facilities, 1967–1973. 93 7.1 Pinewood with Beinn Eighe in the background. 117 8.1 Geometric blocks of conifers in the landscape, Sutherland, 132 northern Scotland. 9.1 Aerial view of the Flow Country in Sutherland. 152 9.2 Restoration of an Atlantic oak wood in the Loch Awe area ca. 165 2000. 10.1 Area planted by the Forestry Commission and private sector in 176 Scotland, 1970–2010. 10.2 Area planted with conifers and broadleaf trees in Scotland, 177 1976–2010. vii Conquering the Highlands List of tables 1 Plantable areas in the UK's uplands. 4 1.1 Major events in the history of Scotland's woodlands during 19 prehistory. 1.2 Major events in the history of Scotland's woodlands during the 22 historic period. 3.1 Percentage of forest area by principal species and planting year 57 classes, 1995. 5.1 Hectares of conifers and broadleaf trees planted in Scotland, 1969– 92 1975. 6.1 Founding members of the Scottish conservation organisations. 110 List of maps 1 Distribution of forest and woodland cover in Scotland and places xi mentioned in the text. 1.1 Average annual rainfall in Scotland. 13 1.2 Relief distribution in Scotland. 14 1.3 Generalised soil types of Scotland. 14 1.4 The major woodland regions in Scotland ca. 6,000 years ago. 18 1.5 Distances to wood resources of monasteries and towns in eastern 25 Scotland during the Middle Ages. 1.6 Sources of charcoal for the Lorn Furnace. 30 6.1 A 1935 map of the proposed Argyll National Forest Park. 107 9.1 Blanked peat areas and forestry in the Flow Country of Caithness 156 and Sutherland. viii List of acronyms APRS Association for the Preservation of Rural Scotland CPRE Council for the Preservation of Rural England FC Forestry Commission FLD Friends of the Lake District NCC Nature Conservancy Council NNR National Nature Reserve NTS National Trust for Scotland PAWS Plantations on Ancient Woodland Sites RSPB Royal Society for the Protection of Birds SNH Scottish Natural Heritage SNP Scottish National Party SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest ix Map 1. Distribution of forest and woodland cover in Scotland and places mentioned in the text. Source: Map by author. Forest distribution based on National Forest Inventory supplied by the Forestry Commission of Great Britain. Preface The moment that this book began can be clearly pinpointed. It was July 1992 and I was on a hiking holiday with a good friend in northern Scotland when we stumble upon Loch an Alltan Fheàrna in Sutherland. The water table had fallen dramatically because of the unusual dry weather, exposing part of the lakebed. These conditions revealed the remains of tree trunks and stumps normally concealed by the water of the loch. It was clear evidence that once a massive forest had flourished at this location where no trees can be found today. My curiosity was awakened and I wanted to find out what had happened to these lost Scottish forests. A couple of years later I spent six months in the Department of History at the University of Hull in England as part of a student exchange programme. It was here that I discussed the problem of the lost Scottish forests with Professor Donald Woodward, who advised me to contact Professor Chris Smout in St. Andrews if I wished to study Scottish woodland history. I followed this advice up and contacted Professor Smout, who invited me over for a discussion of what I wanted to do. My initial idea was to make a study of the ancient forests of Scotland but Professor Smout suggested I look at the recent past and to make a study of the Forestry Commission. It was this suggestion that put me on the course that would ultimately result in this book. Most of the research for this book was undertaken at the University of Stirling in Scotland as part of my PhD studies. Initially the idea was to focus on the conflicts between the Forestry Commission and environmentalists over the creation of monoculture forestry plantations. Conservationists believed that forestry plantations were devastating the landscape and the surviving native woodlands. During the initial research and learning more about the Scottish environment and the background of British forestry policy it became clear that environmental factors were crucial in explaining the nature of modern forestry plantations. In addition, while interviewing retired foresters, it became clear that many of them disliked the monoculture plantations. They were quick to point out that these plantations were the only type of forest that would survive on the land available for forestry. In fact, it seemed that many foresters were very ecologically minded and that the narrative of narrow-minded foresters who only wanted to create monoculture plantations was too simplistic. What emerged was a story of discussion, self-doubt, experimentation and adaptation within the forestry community that was worth telling. That story highlighted that the appearance of modern Scottish forest plantations is not so much the result of the foresters’ lack of interest in nature conservation and landscape preservation but the social, economic and political pressures that underpinned xiii Conquering the Highlands their creation as well as the Scottish physical environment. Although others have studied the Forestry Commission in Scotland, I hope that this book will contribute to a better understanding of Scotland’s forests by approaching the topic from a different perspective. Many people have provided intellectual support for this project over the years and I would like to offer all of them my heartfelt thanks. I am particularly grateful to my mentors at the University of Stirling Fiona Watson and George Peden for their time, encouragement and critical comments that have shaped large parts of this book. I am also grateful to Chris Smout for his support and the many stimulating discussions we have had over the years.