<p>Crop Histories </p><p>by </p><p>Raoul A. Robinson </p><p>Second edition, revised </p><p>Sharebooks Publishing </p><p>© Raoul A. Robinson, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2007. </p><p>Permission to Reproduce. <br>Any person, library, or organisation may download, print, photocopy or otherwise reproduce this book for purposes of private study, and do so free of legal or financial liability. However, this book is copyrighted and may not be reproduced in any form for purposes of financial gain without prior permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review for inclusion in a journal, magazine, or newspaper. If a copy of this book is given free of charge to a third person then it must contain this copyright notice in full. This book is also available as shareware: anyone may download it, and may make an entirely voluntary contribution, by way of compensation to the author and publisher, via </p><p><a href="/goto?url=http://www.sharebooks.ca" target="_blank">www.sharebooks.ca </a>on the internet. </p><p>Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Robinson, Raoul A. <br>Crop histories / by Raoul A. Robinson. -- 2nd ed., rev. </p><p>Also available in electronic format. ISBN 978-0-9783634-5-1 </p><p>1. Crops--History.&nbsp;2. Agriculture--History.&nbsp;I. Title. </p><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">SB71.R63 2007 </li><li style="flex:1">630.9 </li><li style="flex:1">C2007-905620-2 </li></ul><p></p><p>List of Contents </p><p>2<br>The Wild Ecosystem..................................................................................... 12 <br>The Importance of Grass........................................................................... 13 The Carrying Capacity of the Environment.............................................. 14 Three Brutal Laws of Nature .................................................................... 15 The Hunger Compulsion........................................................................... 17 The First Alternative................................................................................. 18 The Second Alternative ............................................................................ 20 Migration into the Americas..................................................................... 22 The Third Alternative ............................................................................... 24 The Thirst Compulsion............................................................................. 28 Starvation.................................................................................................. 29 <br>Domestication ............................................................................................... 30 <br>The Environment ...................................................................................... 30 Cultural Evolution..................................................................................... 31 Domestication ........................................................................................... 33 The Domestication of Animals................................................................. 34 The Domestication of Plants..................................................................... 36 Domestication of Micro-Organisms ......................................................... 38 Adverse Domestication............................................................................. 39 Unconscious Extermination...................................................................... 41 Ecological Chaos ...................................................................................... 44 A brief history of plant breeding .............................................................. 46 <br>The Agro-Ecosystem .................................................................................... 50 <br>The Quality of the Environment............................................................... 50 Staples....................................................................................................... 50 Ecotypes.................................................................................................... 52 </p><p>3<br>Agriculture................................................................................................ 57 The Dates of Agriculture .......................................................................... 60 Ease of Cultivation.................................................................................... 61 Productivity............................................................................................... 61 Reliability.................................................................................................. 62 Return for Labour ..................................................................................... 63 Adjuncts of Staples ................................................................................... 63 Minor Staples and Minor Civilisations..................................................... 64 Areas Lacking the Major Staples.............................................................. 66 Temperate North America ........................................................................ 66 Temperate South America ........................................................................ 66 Africa South of the Sahara........................................................................ 67 Australia.................................................................................................... 67 Papua New Guinea.................................................................................... 68 <br>Civilisation.................................................................................................... 69 <br>Civilisation Defined.................................................................................. 69 Population Density.................................................................................... 69 Hierarchies ................................................................................................ 70 Religion..................................................................................................... 71 The Effects of Living in a Fixed Location................................................ 72 Calendars................................................................................................... 74 Mathematics.............................................................................................. 75 Writing...................................................................................................... 76 Individual Ownership ............................................................................... 77 Taxation .................................................................................................... 77 Corvée Labour .......................................................................................... 78 </p><p>4<br>Hydraulic Cultures.................................................................................... 80 Rainfed Cultures ....................................................................................... 81 The Poverty Cycle .................................................................................... 82 Civilisation Collapse................................................................................. 83 Thomas Malthus........................................................................................ 83 Social Darwinism...................................................................................... 84 <br>Human Health ............................................................................................... 87 <br>Our Tropical Centre of Origin .................................................................. 87 Loss of Parasites ....................................................................................... 87 Re-Encounter Diseases ............................................................................. 88 Europeans and Africans in the New World.............................................. 89 Europeans in Tropical Africa.................................................................... 91 Disease vulnerability................................................................................. 91 People-Importing and People-Exporting Countries ................................. 92 <br>WHEAT ........................................................................................................ 94 <br>Domestication ........................................................................................... 94 The Diversification of Languages and Cultures....................................... 98 The Indo-European Family of Languages................................................ 99 The Renfrew Hypothesis ........................................................................ 100 Storage .................................................................................................... 104 Storage Pests........................................................................................... 105 Milling..................................................................................................... 106 Cooking................................................................................................... 107 Two Kinds of Wheat............................................................................... 109 Bread....................................................................................................... 110 Ancient Rome ......................................................................................... 112 </p><p>5<br>Egypt....................................................................................................... 112 Mediaeval Europe................................................................................... 114 Pastry....................................................................................................... 114 The Industrial Revolution....................................................................... 115 Free Trade ............................................................................................... 118 The American Wheatlands...................................................................... 118 Ploughing................................................................................................ 120 Harvesting............................................................................................... 121 Threshing ................................................................................................ 121 Transportation......................................................................................... 122 Milling..................................................................................................... 124 Modern Baking ....................................................................................... 125 Wheat Breeding ...................................................................................... 125 The Green Revolution............................................................................. 127 <br>Rice ............................................................................................................. 130 Maize........................................................................................................... 142 Coconuts ..................................................................................................... 153 <br>Domestication ......................................................................................... 154 Desert Islands.......................................................................................... 155 Ocean Travel........................................................................................... 156 Trade and Exploration ............................................................................ 163 The Hunger Compulsion......................................................................... 164 Sweet Potato............................................................................................ 165 Founder Populations ............................................................................... 166 Two Sub-Families of Austronesian Languages...................................... 168 World distribution of coconuts............................................................... 169 </p><p>6<br>Coconut Diseases.................................................................................... 171 Human Diseases...................................................................................... 172 The Copra Trade ..................................................................................... 173 Soap and Glycerin................................................................................... 175 <br>Spices .......................................................................................................... 177 <br>The Portuguese Explorations.................................................................. 179 The Spanish Explorations....................................................................... 182 Black Pepper........................................................................................... 184 Red Peppers ............................................................................................ 187 Horseradish ............................................................................................. 190 Mustard ................................................................................................... 190 Ginger, Turmeric and Cardamoms ......................................................... 192 Cloves ..................................................................................................... 195 Allspice ................................................................................................... 201 Vanilla..................................................................................................... 203 Nutmeg.................................................................................................... 204 Cinnamon................................................................................................ 206 <br>Potato .......................................................................................................... 208 <br>Pre-Colombian Potatoes ......................................................................... 208 Origins of the Potato............................................................................... 210 Nomenclature.......................................................................................... 212 Introduction to Europe............................................................................ 214 Impact on Europe.................................................................................... 215 The Great Potato Famine ........................................................................ 218 The Repeal of the Corn Laws ................................................................. 226 Bordeaux Mixture................................................................................... 228 </p><p>7<br>Breeding Potatoes for Disease Resistance.............................................. 229 <br>Rubber......................................................................................................... 233 <br>Vulcanisation .......................................................................................... 235 Wheels..................................................................................................... 236 World War II........................................................................................... 238 Plantation Rubber ................................................................................... 240 South American Leaf Blight................................................................... 246 Population Control.................................................................................. 247 <br>Tea............................................................................................................... 250 <br>Clipper ships ........................................................................................... 252 China tea ................................................................................................. 252 Teaspoons ............................................................................................... 253 Assam tea................................................................................................ 254 Clonal tea ................................................................................................ 256 Research in Kenya .................................................................................. 258 Harvesting and processing...................................................................... 260 Preparation.............................................................................................. 262 Boston tea party ...................................................................................... 264 <br><em>Chapter Fourteen</em>................................................................................ 266 <br>Coffee.......................................................................................................... 266 <br>Origins..................................................................................................... 266 Distribution ............................................................................................. 270 The role of disease .................................................................................. 273 Coffee berry disease................................................................................ 275 <br>Cocoa .......................................................................................................... 281 <br>The Aztecs .............................................................................................. 281 </p><p>8<br>A gift from the gods................................................................................ 283 A cline..................................................................................................... 283 Cocoa in Africa....................................................................................... 285 Cultivation............................................................................................... 285 Cocoa pods.............................................................................................. 286 Cocoa in Europe...................................................................................... 286 Chocolate products ................................................................................. 288 Quaker families....................................................................................... 289 Hershey ................................................................................................... 290 <br>Cotton.......................................................................................................... 291 <br>Weaving .................................................................................................. 291 Spinning.................................................................................................. 293 The Industrial Revolution....................................................................... 294 Eli Whitney............................................................................................. 296 Slavery .................................................................................................... 298 Mechanisation......................................................................................... 299 Cellulose ................................................................................................. 300 Origins..................................................................................................... 300 Production............................................................................................... 303 <br>Sugar ........................................................................................................... 305 <br>Sugar Beet............................................................................................... 305 Sugarcane................................................................................................ 313 <br>Tobacco....................................................................................................... 326 <br>History..................................................................................................... 326 Domestication ......................................................................................... 327 Cultivation............................................................................................... 329 </p><p>9<br>Pesticides................................................................................................. 330 Harvesting............................................................................................... 331 Curing ..................................................................................................... 331 Pipes........................................................................................................ 333 Cigars ...................................................................................................... 335 Cigarettes ................................................................................................ 336 Human Health ......................................................................................... 338 Mechanisation......................................................................................... 339 Other Uses............................................................................................... 339 Taxes....................................................................................................... 340 Infernal Machines ................................................................................... 341 Accessories ............................................................................................. 342 Scientific considerations......................................................................... 343 <br>Banana......................................................................................................... 346 <br>Ancient Domestication ........................................................................... 346 The Plant ................................................................................................. 348 Dispersal ................................................................................................. 351 Cultivation............................................................................................... 351 Banana Republics.................................................................................... 353 Big Michael............................................................................................. 355 Joseph Paxton ......................................................................................... 358 Moko....................................................................................................... 359 Banana Breeding..................................................................................... 360 <br>Alcohol........................................................................................................ 361 <br>Alcoholism and Temperance Movements .............................................. 361 Grapes and Grain .................................................................................... 362 </p>