279 >A/8 /c/ A/0, 21^6 MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN THE MIDDLE EAST: THE CASE OF THE KURDS DISSERTATION Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Manouchehr Rostamy Khosrowshahi, B.A., M.A, Denton, Texas December, 1983 Khosrowshahi, Manouche'nr Rostamy, Management of Communal Conflict in the Middle East: The Case of The Kurds Doctor of Philosophy (Political Science), December, 19S3, 255 pp., 6 tables, 1 map, bibliography, 298 titles. The objective of this study is to describe and analyze the management of communal conflict in the Middle East, focusing on the Kurds. To this end, an effort is made to examine (1) the means that have been used to manage the Kurdish conflict by Middle Eastern countries; (2) the degree of success or failure of applied measures and (3) possible explanations for the first two questions. The Ottoman Empire, which at one time included most of the Middle East, managed communal conflicts by the means of dhimmis and millet systems until the beginning of the 20th century. The emergence of nationalism and the principle of self-determination coupled with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire caused these systems to fail. From World irfar I until 1975, suppression and other violent means were the prevalent means used by Middle Eastern countries to manage the Kurdish problem. Preventive and peaceful measures, on the other hand, were devised to appease the Kurds; or the Kurds have been exploited for foreign policy objectives as well. Therefore, management of the Kurdish conflict has been such an integral part of international relations of the region that at times it has been dependent on the interaction of the host countries and other countries over which the Kurds have no control. Over the long history of the Middle East, violent and suppressive means and techniques have been used more than non-violent and preventive measures to manage communal conflict. Although the suppressive and violent measures have been successful in the short run, they have failed to manage communal conflicts in the long run. The lack of pr econditions for the use of non-violent measures, clash of n ationalism, violent transfers of power, lack of unity among communal groups and lack of support of a superpower are some o f the important factors which explain the application of suppressive and violent measures in the Middle PREFACE The Middle East has been one of the most politically unstable and divided regions in the world. It has also been an arena of violence from the days of its earliest recorded history to the present time. The existence of wide varieties of religious, linguistic, and ethnic groups has resulted in communal conflicts for centuries. With the region's long cultural history and its numerous communal groups, management of communal conflict has a siginficant impact on its politics. Tnis research focuses upon the problems that arise when different communal groups come together and interact productively or tragically. The modes of conflict management vary, but usually one group dominates or attempts to dominate the others. I have paid special attention to the salient aspects of conflict resolution measures in the Middle East because its management is one of the neglected areas in the study of the region. Hopefully, this research will contribute to the successful management of communal conflict in the region and thereby promote a peaceful and stable world. TABLE OF CONTENTS page LIST OF TABLES iii LIST OF MAPS iv Chapter I. MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNAL CONFLICT 1 A Statement of the Problem Methodology The Importance of the Subject The Kurds (Population of the Research) II. MEANS OR TECHNIQUES OF MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNAL CONFLICT 30 Introdution The Preventive and Non-violent Means of Management of Communal Conflict The Suppressive and Violent Means of Management of Communal Conflict Secession and Partition III. MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNAL CONFLICT IN THE MIDDLE EAST: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 65 Introduction Management of Communal Conflict by the Ottoman Empire The Collapse of the Millet System and Emergence of Nationalism Management of Kurdish Conflict During the First World War IV. Management of Kurdish Conflict in Turkey ... 97 From World War I Until World War II From World War II Until 1975 V. MANAGEMENT OF KURDISH CONFLICT IN IRAQ .... 118 From World War I Until World War II From World War II Until 1958 From 1958 Until 1968 From 1968 Until 1975 VI. MANAGEMENT OF KURDISH CONFLICT IN IRAN .... 161 From World War I Until World War II i From World War II Until 1947 From 1947 Until 1968 From 1968 Until 1975 VII. MANAGEMENT OF KURDISH CONFLICT IN SYRIA .... 194 From World War I Until 1957 From 1957 Until 1975 VIII. CONCLUSION 208 APPENDIX A 226 APPENDIX B 230 BIBLIOGRAPHY 236 11 LIST OF TABLES Table page I. KURDISH POPULATION ESTIMATE FOR 1975 22 II. COMMUNAL GROUPS WITHIN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 68 III. COMMUNAL GROUPS DATA FOR TURKEY 232 IV. COMMUNAL GROUPS DATA FOR IRAQ 233 V. COMMUNAL GROUPS DATA FOR IRAN 234 VI. COMMUNAL GROUPS DATA FOR SYRIA 235 in LIST OF MAPS Map Page THE KURDISH TERRITORY 19 IV CHAPTER I MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNAL CONFLICT A Statement of the Problem The Middle East has been an arena of conflict for centuries. At times wars and violence have changed boudaries overnight. Even today many conflicts have not been officially resolved. These long and often serious conflicts among communal groups in the Middle East have per sisted in spite of the strongly integrative character of Islamic religion and culture. For centuries, the Islamic religion has had the role of moderating (as well as causing) communal tensions among the peoples of the Middle East. While racial conflict has not been a problem, communal conflict pervades the region. I find Milton Esman's definition of "communal group" as "competitive group solidarities within the same political system based on ethnic, linguistic, racial, or religious identities" to be satisfactory for my purposes (13, P. 49). It is generally believed that religion, language, and race singly or in combination form the core of communal groups' identities and values (33). Communal conflicts originate from the desire to preserve the basic religious, linguistic, or racial characteristics which communal groups possess. The difficulty of communal conflict management rests on the 1 presence of differences in religion, language and race. The chances of communal conflict are great in any society which is divided by one or any combination of these factors. These elements of the communal identity are "non-compromis- ing." As long as they retain political salience, they cannot be traded away or bargained with (3; 9; 10; 11; 12; 14; 15; 17; 21; 29; 34; 36). Over the long history of the Middle East, violent and suppressive means and techniques have been used more than non-violent and preventive measures to manage communal conflict. Although the suppressive and violent measures have been successful in the short run, they have failed to manage communal conflicts in the long run. The lack of preconditions for the use of non-violent measures, clash of nationalism, violent transfers of power, lack of unity among communal groups and lack of support of a superpower are some of the important factors which explain the application of suppressive and violent measures in the Middle East. Management of communal conflict has been a crucial problem for most Middle Eastern countries, particularly in the immediate post-independence period. The traditional focus of international relations has ignored the role of communal groups, and the role of smaller states has been down played in respect to big-power relations. Furthermore, the literature on the Middle East tends to obscure the human realities behind political problems. Given that little 3 attention has been paid to the issue of management of communal conflicts in the Middle East, this research attempts to analyze the different means of communal conflict regulation in the Middle East, focusing on the Kurdish conflict. A full study of different communal groups in the Middle East would require several volumes. Hence, this study will be confined to the management of Kurdish conflict in Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Syria. Since the U.S.S.R is not part of the Middle East, discussion of the Soviet Kurds is not included in this research. It is limited to manifest conflicts involving the Kurds which were severe and intense in terms of causing instability, threats of secession, threats to the values of a dominant group, and threats to the legitimacy of an existing government or political system. Selection of this case satisfies four criteria. First the Kurds share common attributes and are a relatively homogenous communal group. Second, they are located in the heartland of the Middle East. They form substantial minorities in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria and the Soviet Union. Third, the Kurds are one of the largest communal groups who have been consistently denied the right of self-determination in the Middle East. Fourth, in all these countries, the loyalty of the Kurds has been preserved by force. By selecting one communal group resident in several states and by comparing the policies of these states we can find patterns of management of communal conflict in the Middle East. However, some reference will be made to other communal groups and conflicts and to the general history of the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East as well. The time period under consideration extends from the post-World War I (formation of the Turkish Republic in 1919) to 1975. During this period the ideas of self-determination and popular sovereignty became widespread in the region, making communal groups possible candidates for statehood.