The Royal Society For further information society and policy Module 1: Neuroscience, Waves Brain Society Royal The January 2011 Centre Report 01/11 Science Policy The Royal Society is a Fellowship of more than 1400 outstanding The Royal Society individuals from all areas of science, mathematics, engineering and Science Policy Centre medicine, who form a global scientifi c network of the highest 6–9 Carlton House Terrace calibre. The Fellowship is supported by over 140 permanent staff London SW1Y 5AG with responsibility for the day-to-day management of the Society T +44 (0)20 7451 2500 and its activities. The Society encourages public debate on key F +44 (0)20 7451 2692 issues involving science, engineering and medicine, and the use of E [email protected] high quality scientifi c advice in policy-making. We are committed to W royalsociety.org delivering the best independent expert advice, drawing upon the experience of the Society’s Fellows and Foreign Members, the wider scientifi c community and relevant stakeholders. We are working to achieve fi ve strategic priorities: • Invest in future scientifi c leaders and in innovation • Infl uence policymaking with the best scientifi c advice • Invigorate science and mathematics education • Increase access to the best science internationally • Inspire an interest in the joy, wonder and excitement of scientifi c discovery Brain Waves Module 1: Neuroscience, society ISBN 978-0-85403-879-4 and policy ISBN: 978-0-85403-879-4 Issued: January 2011 Report 01/11 DES2015 January 2011 Founded in 1660, the Royal Society is the independent scientific academy of the UK, dedicated to promoting excellence in science 9 780854 038794 Registered Charity No 207043 Price £20 Cover image: The cover image is a drawing of Purkinje cells (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, 1899. Instituto Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain. Brain Waves Module 1: Neuroscience, society and policy RS Policy document 01/11 Issued: January 2011 DES2015 ISBN: 978-0-85403-879-4 © The Royal Society, 2011 Requests to reproduce all or part of this document should be submitted to: The Royal Society Science Policy Centre 6–9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG Tel +44 (0)20 7451 2500 Email [email protected] Web royalsociety.org Brain Waves Module 1: Neuroscience, society and policy Contents 1 Introduction and summary 1 The Brain Waves Project 1 Summary 1 Acknowledgements 2 2 Contemporary neuroscience and technology 5 2.1 The scope and limits of neuroimaging 7 Background 7 Neuroimaging techniques 7 Uses of neuroimaging 11 Limits of neuroimaging 13 Policy questions and issues 16 Conclusion 17 References and further reading 18 Box 1: Neuroimaging and lie detection 18 2.2 Neuropsychopharmacology 19 Background 19 New developments in neuropsychopharmacology 19 Varied drug effects in the brain 20 Conclusion 26 The Royal Society Brain Waves Module 1 I January 2011 I iii References and further reading 27 Box 2: Cognitive enhancing drugs 28 2.3 Neural interfaces and brain interference 31 Background 31 Early studies that provided the impetus for NIS developments 32 The current state of the science 32 Potential clinical applications 33 NISs as tools for neuroscience research 34 Recurrent NIS and ‘cognitive prostheses’ 35 Technical challenges and opportunities 35 Less / non-invasive NISs and extrapolation to the games and toy industry 36 Conclusion 37 References and further reading 37 Box 3: Neural interface systems 38 Box 4: Transcranial magnetic stimulation 39 2.4 A determinist view of brain, mind and consciousness 41 Background 41 Implicit assumptions 41 The evidence 42 Conscious versus unconscious processing 42 Wrong intuitions 43 Differences between unconscious and conscious decisions 44 Why is intuition in confl ict with neurobiological evidence? 45 Potential consequences for our legal systems 45 Punishment and confi nement 46 iv I January 2011 I Brain Waves Module 1 The Royal Society Attenuating conditions 46 References and further reading 47 Box 5: The biological becomes personal: philosophical problems in neuroscience 49 2.5 Reward, decision-making and neuroeconomics 51 Background 51 Aims of neuroeconomics: perspective of neuroscience 51 Aims of neuroeconomics: perspective of economics 52 Current state of neuroeconomic research: how the factors that infl uence decisions are represented in the brain 53 Current state of neuroeconomic research: how one possible action is selected from multiple options 54 Current state of neuroeconomic research: social decisions 54 Policy questions 56 Neuromarketing 57 References and further reading 57 3 Neuroscience and society 59 3.1 Benefi ts and opportunities 61 Background 61 Application to policy 61 Opportunities 64 Challenges and solutions 65 Conclusion 66 References and further reading 66 3.2 Risks 69 Background 69 Is increased knowledge of the brain itself hazardous? 69 The Royal Society Brain Waves Module 1 I January 2011 I v Policy issues 70 Drugs for social control? 71 The military and neurotechnoscience 75 Conclusion 76 References and further reading 76 3.3 Neuroethics 77 Background 77 Neuroimaging 78 Genetic neuroscience 79 New medical applications 79 Harmful uses 80 Neuro-enhancement 81 Machine minds? 83 Policy concerns in neuroethics 84 References and further reading 85 3.4 Governance of neuroscience: challenges and responses 87 Three lessons 87 Seven syndromes 90 Three principles 93 References and further reading 96 vi I January 2011 I Brain Waves Module 1 The Royal Society 1 Introduction and summary The Brain Waves project • Module 2: Neuroscience: implications Developments in neuroscience, the study for education and lifelong learning; of the brain and nervous system, are • Module 3: Neuroscience, confl ict and likely to provide signifi cant benefi ts for security; society. Increasing understanding of the brain and advances in technologies to • Module 4: Neuroscience, responsibility study it will enable improved treatment of and the law. neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, and mental illnesses, including depression and Summary schizophrenia. They will increase our This Module 1 report is a collection of insights into normal human behaviour essays that together provide a primer of and mental wellbeing, as well as enabling current developments in neuroscience and other enhancement, manipulation, and highlight interesting issues and questions even degradation of brain function and for society and policy. It is not intended as cognition. an exhaustive review of the science, nor to make specifi c policy recommendations. Neuroscience and neurotechnology Rather, it raises key issues and questions, reach far and wide into disparate fi elds. many of which will be explored in more The array of ‘neuro’ disciplines lend depth in subsequent modules. themselves to applications in diverse areas of public policy such as health, education, In Section 2 of the report we review the law, and security. More broadly, progress state of development of neuroscience in neuroscience is going to raise questions and neurotechnology, discuss the about personality, identity, responsibility, translation of this knowledge into useful and liberty, as well as associated social applications or inferences, and raise some and ethical issues. The aim of the Royal of the implications. Section 2.1 explores Society’s Brain Waves project is to explore neuroimaging. Here, we describe some what neuroscience can offer, what are its of the existing tools used to study the limitations, and what are the potential brain, their limitations, and associated benefi ts and the risks posed by particular issues for healthcare, business, applications. criminal justice, and privacy. In Section 2.2 we address developments in neuropsy- This report is the fi rst in a series of four chopharmacology, their application for ‘modules’. Three subsequent modules mental health medicines, wider issues of will consider specifi c policy issues in recreational use, as well as emerging more detail: applications for cognitive enhancement. • Module 1: Neuroscience, society and Neural interfaces and brain interference policy; are the subject of Section 2.3, which The Royal Society Brain Waves Module 1 I January 2011 I 1 reviews those providing direct input to issues such as personal identity, physical the brain to modulate activity and those and moral enhancement, responsibility, that use outputs of brain activity to and artifi cial intelligence. Finally, in Section control external devices or prostheses. 3.4 we draw lessons from the wider Applications in diverse areas of health- governance of science and technology, care and the games industry are dis- suggesting approaches to marshalling cussed. Sections 2.4 and 2.5 address neuroscience in order to maximise the what new developments in neuroscience benefi ts and minimise any risks. may mean for our understanding of Professor Colin Blakemore FRS, Chair, behaviour and decision-making. Section Steering Group, Brain Waves project 2.4 argues that understanding of con- scious and unconscious decision-making processes presents a challenge to our concepts of responsibility and free will. Acknowledgements Section 2.5 explores how recent work in The Brain Waves project is overseen by a behavioural neuroscience is leading to Steering Group, chaired by Professor Colin insights about the neurobiological basis Blakemore FRS. These experts also serve of economic decision-making. as members of three broader Working Groups for Modules 2, 3, and 4. The Royal In Section 3 we examine some of the Society would like to thank all members of opportunities and risks these scientifi c the Steering Group, most of whom have developments present, as well as the authored essays for this volume and all of ethical questions they raise, and whom have overseen its development governance issues that need to be and editing: considered. Section 3.1 describes some of the benefi ts and opportunities in • Professor Colin Blakemore FRS (Chair), neuroscience, with a particular focus on Professor of Neuroscience, University new drugs to combat mental illness and of Oxford; cognitive decline, and the associated role of the private sector.