COMPREHENSIVE LITERATURE REVIEW AND SYNOPSIS OF ISSUES RELATING TO GEODUCK ( PANOPEA ABRUPTA ) ECOLOGY AND AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION Prepared for Washington State Department of Natural Resources by Kristine Feldman, Brent Vadopalas, David Armstrong, Carolyn Friedman, Ray Hilborn, Kerry Naish, Jose Orensanz, and Juan Valero (School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington), Jennifer Ruesink (Department of Biology, University of Washington), Andrew Suhrbier, Aimee Christy, and Dan Cheney (Pacific Shellfish Institute), and Jonathan P. Davis (Baywater Inc.) February 6, 2004 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................v 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 1 1.1 General life history ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 Predator-prey interactions........................................................................... 2 1.3 Community and ecosystem effects of geoducks......................................... 2 1.4 Spatial structure of geoduck populations.................................................... 3 1.5 Genetic-based differences at the population level ...................................... 3 1.6 Commercial geoduck hatchery practices .................................................... 4 1.7 Development of aquaculture production systems for cultured geoduck..... 5 2. GENERAL LIFE HISTORY (UW, Brent Vadopalas).............................................. 6 2.1 Taxonomy (Conrad 1849)........................................................................... 6 2.2 Shell structure and age estimation .............................................................. 6 2.3 Anatomy...................................................................................................... 8 2.4 Reproduction............................................................................................... 9 2.5 Embryogenesis.......................................................................................... 10 2.6 Distribution............................................................................................... 11 2.7 Habitat....................................................................................................... 11 2.8 Life cycle .................................................................................................. 12 3. PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTIONS (UW, Kristine Feldman)........................... 15 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 15 3.2 Predation risk and geoduck life history stage ........................................... 15 3.3 Predation on juvenile geoduck clams ....................................................... 17 3.4 Geoduck predators and factors that affect consumption rates .................. 22 3.4.1 Introduction................................................................................... 22 3.4.2 Crabs ............................................................................................. 22 3.4.3 Sea stars ........................................................................................ 27 3.4.4 Gastropods .................................................................................... 28 3.4.5 Fish................................................................................................ 29 3.4.6 Birds.............................................................................................. 31 3.4.7 Mammals....................................................................................... 32 4. COMMUNITY AND ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF GEODUCKS (UW, Jennifer Ruesink) ................................................................................................................... 33 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 33 4.2 Effects on water properties ....................................................................... 34 4.3 Effects on sediment properties.................................................................. 35 4.4 Effects on community structure................................................................ 35 5. SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF GEODUCKS AND OTHER BIVALVE SPECIES (UW, Brent Vadopalas) ........................................................................................... 36 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 36 5.2 Population Density.................................................................................... 36 5.3 Population Size ......................................................................................... 37 i 5.4 Aggregation............................................................................................... 39 5.5 Temporal Changes .................................................................................... 40 5.6 Dispersal ................................................................................................... 41 6. GENETIC-BASED DIFFERENCES AT THE POPULATION LEVEL, IMPLICATIONS FOR GEODUCK STOCKS, AND RISK REDUCTION (UW, Brent Vadopalas) ..................................................................................................... 41 6.1 Population Genetics .................................................................................. 41 6.2 Implications concerning wild and “seeded” stocks .................................. 44 6.3 Risk Reduction.......................................................................................... 45 7. DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT COMMERCIAL GEODUCK HATCHERY PRACTICES (Baywater, Inc., Jonathan P. Davis) .................................................. 48 7.1 History and current status of private and government sponsored geoduck hatchery operations in the United States................................................... 48 7.2 Brief history and current status of private and government sponsored geoduck hatchery operations outside of the United States ....................... 50 7.3 Current status of geoduck larval and nursery culture in Washington State ................................................................................................................... 52 7.4 Hatchery infrastructure ............................................................................. 52 7.4.1 Seawater source and treatment...................................................... 52 7.4.2 Larval culture equipment .............................................................. 54 7.4.3 Algal culture systems.................................................................... 55 7.5 Hatchery production of geoducks............................................................. 58 7.5.1 Broodstock collection, maturation, and spawning techniques...... 58 7.5.2 Larval rearing techniques.............................................................. 60 7.5.3 Post settlement rearing techniques................................................ 61 8. DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS FOR CULTURED GEODUCK (PSI, Andrew Suhrbier, Aimee Christy, and Dan Cheney).................................................................................................................... 62 8.1 Farm site development and predator protection........................................ 63 8.1.1 Washington ................................................................................... 63 8.1.2 British Columbia........................................................................... 65 8.1.3 New Zealand................................................................................. 66 8.2 Processing ................................................................................................. 67 8.2.1 Washington ................................................................................... 67 8.2.2 British Columbia........................................................................... 67 8.2.3 Korea............................................................................................. 68 8.3 Washington health considerations ............................................................ 68 9. PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH NEEDS ........................... 69 9.1 Reproduction, recruitment, and genetic interactions ................................ 69 9.2 Predator-prey interactions......................................................................... 70 9.3 Community and ecosystem interactions ................................................... 71 9.3.1 Suspension feeding activities and water column effects............... 71 9.3.2 Sediment interactions.................................................................... 71 9.4 Farming practices...................................................................................... 71 10. LITERATURE CITED............................................................................................ 73 11. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY (Pacific Shellfish Institute).............................. 91 ii 12. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY (Baywater, Inc.)............................................. 130 iii LIST OF FIGURES Number Page Figure 1. Sketch of the internal organization of the major organs of the geoduck clam, Panopea