Journal of Hydrology 389 (2010) 69–77 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hydrology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol Monitoring of tidal influences on the saline interface using resistivity traversing and cross-borehole resistivity tomography F.J. Morrow a,1, M.R. Ingham b,*, J.A. McConchie a,1 a School of Geography, Environment & Earth Science, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand b School of Chemical & Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand article info summary Article history: Tidal influences on the saline interface of a shallow unconfined aquifer have been investigated by using Received 20 July 2009 both dc resistivity traversing and cross-borehole resistivity tomography (CRT). Variations in bulk resistiv- Received in revised form 10 February 2010 ity structure obtained through resistivity traversing provide a clear general picture of the structure of the Accepted 13 May 2010 saline interface and its mixing zone. On all three resistivity traverses there are also indications that a small degree of mixing of saline and fresh water is occurring ahead of the main saline boundary. For This manuscript was handled by P. Baveye, Editor-n-Chief, with the assistance of one of the traverses much more detail of variations in resistivity structure is provided by CRT utilising Philippe Baveye, Associate Editor. three 10 m long electrode strings installed at 10 m separation. CRT images of the saline mixing zone do not reveal any significant difference between low and high tide for tidal ranges of about 2 m, but Keywords: for a tidal range of approximately twice this clearly show effects due to both increased wave run-up Saline interface and tidal head. Correlation of the bulk resistivity with fluid resistivity values measured in parallel bores Resistivity traversing suggests that although there is no apparent widening of the mixing zone during the tidal cycle significant Cross-borehole resistivity tomography variations in salinity do occur which can be envisaged in terms of the horizontal movement of near ver- tical salinity contours. Ó 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction quences of any rise in sea level, the controls on, and dynamics of, the saline interface under natural conditions must first be Coastal aquifers form major sources of water throughout the understood. world (International Association of Hydrologists, 2003). For exam- Sea water, with a resistivity 0.3 Xm, of is one of the most elec- ple, in New Zealand they supply over 50% of all groundwater trically conductive substances found naturally at the earth’s sur- (White, 2001). Such resources are extremely vulnerable to salinisa- face. In comparison fresh water has a resistivity of 10–100 Xm. tion from saltwater intrusion. Nevertheless, despite the critical role The change from fresh to saline water can therefore be readily played by coastal aquifers as global groundwater resources, the determined using electrical resistivity techniques. Indeed, the clear nature and dynamics of the saline interface are not well under- contrast between the bulk resistivity of sand saturated with fresh stood. In coastal aquifers the position of the saline interface repre- or saline water makes the use of electrical techniques an obvious sents an equilibrium between freshwater and seawater choice for studying the saline interface (Acworth and Dasey, potentiometric heads. The saline interface is not a sharp boundary 2003). Many examples exist of studies where electrical measure- and is fixed in neither time nor space. It is best considered as a ments have been employed in such investigations. These include zone of mixing which varies in response to anything that changes the use of dc resistivity soundings (e.g. Ebraheem et al., 1997; Cho- the difference between freshwater and seawater heads. This may udhury et al., 2001), resistivity traversing (e.g. Wilson et al., 2006; include tidal action as well as variations in groundwater flow, in- Batayneh, 2006; Koukadaki et al., 2007), and electromagnetic mea- creased groundwater extraction, and, potentially, changes in sea surements (e.g. Goldman et al., 1991; Albouy et al., 2001; Duque level. Although little is known about sea level rise as a potential et al., 2008). cause of saline intrusion, the focus of research in this area is start- In this paper we report the results of a study which uses both ing to shift because of a wider acceptance of climate change, and resistivity traversing and the less commonly employed cross-bore- the potential for sea level rise. However, to predict the conse- hole resistivity tomography (CRT) to investigate the location of and dynamics of the saline interface in an unconfined coastal aquifer. CRT (Daniels, 1977; Shima, 1992) utilises measurements made be- * Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 4 463 5216; fax: +64 4 463 5237. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.R. Ingham). tween strings of electrodes in boreholes to derive detailed models 1 Present address: OPUS, PO-Box 12-343, Wellington, New Zealand. of the electrical resistivity structure between the boreholes. CRT 0022-1694/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.05.022 70 F.J. Morrow et al. / Journal of Hydrology 389 (2010) 69–77 has been used in several studies aimed at measuring and monitor- shows a marked decrease from south-east to north-west, as well ing subsurface flow (e.g. Slater et al., 2000; Looms et al., 2008) and as a degree of seasonality. The driest month (February) has about in a previous study of the salinity structure beneath a beach-face 50 mm of rainfall compared to over 100 mm per month in June (Turner and Acworth, 2004). A closely related technique, that of and July. The Kapiti Coast is one of the fastest growing areas of borehole to surface resistivity measurements, has also been used New Zealand in terms of population and development and this by Bauer et al. (2006) in a deltaic environment. In studies of the has created an increasing demand for water resources and led to saline interface CRT holds the promise of being able to provide a growing number of water resource management issues resulting more detailed images of the resistivity structure than can be ob- from a combination of the local scarcity of water suitable for hu- tained from surface resistivity measurements which suffer a loss man consumption, variability in rainfall from year to year, growing of resolution with depth. Time lapse measurements may also en- population, and high per capita water usage. able temporal variations of the saline interface to be observed Until recently, the Waikanae River (Fig. 1) was the only source and lead to an improved understanding of the diffusive processes of potable water. Although the river flows 365 days per year, the taking place at the boundary. Temporal variations of interest in- substantially reduced flow during a prolonged dry period during clude not only those due to wave and tidal action but, ultimately, the summer of 2002–2003 led to the imposition of severe water those that may possibly arise from sea level changes. restrictions. To supplement water supplies during dry periods, in The present study therefore aims to assess the ability of a com- 2004 the local council (Kapiti Coast District Council – KCDC) in- bination of surface and cross-borehole resistivity measurements to stalled a borefield to draw water from deep (60–80 m) aquifers. address four fundamental issues: (1) to locate the seaward bound- In addition to these deep bores, there are between 3000 and ary of a shallow unconfined aquifer; (2) to determine the character 4000 shallow bores in the area, most of which are less than 6 m and dynamics of the saline interface; (3) to examine the response deep and are used for garden irrigation. The amount of groundwa- of the saline interface to tidal fluctuations and other stimuli; and ter they use is unknown (Wellington Regional Council, 2000; URS, (4) to analyse the potential for landward movement of the saline 2004a) but has been estimated as peaking during the summer interface as a result of any sea level rise. months at approximately 5–6000 m3/day (Jones and Gyopari 2005). Cumulatively, these abstractions from the groundwater sys- 2. Location and hydrogeology of the study area tem have the potential to effect the dynamic equilibrium that de- fines the location and structure of the saline interface. The study The study area, the Kapiti Coast in the south-west of the lower area therefore represents an excellent example of coastal aquifers North Island of New Zealand (Fig. 1), lies on the narrow (approxi- which are being placed under increasing demand. mately 10 km wide) coastal plain to the north-west of the Tararua Under the surface of the coastal plain lie three known aquifers Ranges. The mean annual rainfall (1035 mm at Paraparaumu) (Wellington Regional Council, 1994) contained within six strati- Fig. 1. The Kapiti Coast, North Island of New Zealand, showing main rivers/watercourses and locations mentioned in the text. Shading shows land over 100 m above sea level. F.J. Morrow et al. / Journal of Hydrology 389 (2010) 69–77 71 graphic units (URS, 2003). The six units all have a similar sequence, bore log for a deep well located on the northern side of the Waik- are up to 20 m thick and, as do similar units on the west coast of anae River mouth indicate that the sediment at the coastline is pre- the North Island of New Zealand, reflect a Milankovitch-frequency dominantly sand to at least 15 m depth. This was deposited during sedimentary cycle of 100,000 years. The stratigraphic units are not the marine transgression at the end of the last glacial and the fol- horizontal but dip towards the coast.