HESPERIA 75 (2006) FORTIFICATIONS OF Pages 327~356 MOUNT ONEION, CORINTHIA ABSTRACT on Recent investigations the Isthmus of Corinth by the Eastern Korinthia a Archaeological Survey (EKAS) have revealed series of relatively humble fortifications situated along the ridge ofMt. Oneion, which forms the south ern boundary of the Isthmus. These Late Classical-Early Hellenistic walls, a were to along with nearby series of later Venetian fortifications, designed access block to the south through several low passes. Controlling the passage was a of northern armies through the Isthmus to the P?loponn?se clearly concern for diverse long-term strategic regional powers. one The Isthmus of Corinth is of the most strategically important regions in the eastern Mediterranean.1 It lies at the junction of the main north-south sea roads between central Greece and the P?loponn?se and the routes be tween the eastern and the western Mediterranean. The Corinthians, with their imposing citadel of Acrocorinth, traditionally controlled the Isthmus, runs which from the city's western port of Lechaion to its eastern port at numerous a Kenchreai (Fig. 1). At times, however, foreign power such as or to Rome Venice has sought dominate this strategically significant corridor. a area The Isthmus is both relatively fertile, flat agricultural and the natural point of defense for the P?loponn?se against any attack from the at north.2 Only 7 km wide its narrowest point, the Isthmus is cut today by was the Corinth Canal and crossed in antiquity by the Diolkos road. It is to are to 1.We would especially like to thank also like thank Ronald Stroud, thanks due the many members Merle Daniel Pullen, codirector, and Thomas James Wiseman, and Langdon of EKAS who trudged up and down in Tartaron, field director, of the Eastern for advice and for reading earlier the steep paths of Oneion hot and drafts of the article. Thanks are also sometimes often Korinthia Archaeological Survey dangerous situations, to (EKAS). The 37th Ephoreia of due the anonymous Hesperia referees, carrying heavy equipment. This article who us avoid errors and is Classical and Prehistoric Antiquities helped many primarily the fruit of their labor. and the 4th Ephoreia of Byzantine and infelicities. Holly Cook prepared the 2.Wiseman 1978, pp. 17-21,52 and Karen Soteriou Post-Byzantine Antiquities provided pottery drawings, 56, 81-82; Isthmia V, pp. 7-10; Fowden at the of the Maritsa Vene 1995. cooperation and encouragement prepared plans tian every step of this project. We would fortifications. Finally, special ? The American School of Classical Studies at Athens WILLIAM R. CARAHER AND TIMOTHY E. GREGORY N GuffofCorfnth A Ancfofit Corinth Yirfe???Gont? Voukiana Xytotortn Saronlc Gulf i vym Figure 1.The Isthmus of Corinth, one of a handful of to natural places critical the defense of Greece, along with sites mentioned in the text. eastern W. R. Caraher with the pass ofThermopylai and the western passes of Kithairon Parnes between Boiotia and the Attic-Megarid region.3 Although these areas three have natural features that have made them easily defensible, all of them required complex systems of fortification to prevent the passage of an we new on enemy. Here seek to shed light the southernmost fortifica tions of the Isthmus corridor. At the southern boundary of the Isthmian plain, the abrupt heights of a Mt. Oneion provide natural defensive line from Kenchreai toAcrocorinth an (Figs. 1, 2). For enemy approaching Mt. Oneion from the north, the a access sheer cliffs and steep slopes present formidable barrier. To gain to 3. Fowden 1995, 550. lands south of the mountain, it is to the Oneion barrier in a p. possible pass 4. For see the Xeropotamos, Wise number of ways 3). The easiest method is to go around it, either to (Fig. man 1978, pp. 81, 88-90; Salmon 1983, the east or the west. The routes of both ancient and modern times principal p. 36. For the Nemea and Longopota to course mos see skirt Mt. Oneion the west, following the of the Xeropotamos rivers, Pritchett 1969, pp. 77 or Wiseman (Leukon) River traversing the valleys of the Longopotamos (Rachiani) 79; 1978, pp. 81,108-110; to Salmon 1983, pp. 36-37; Bynum 1995, and Nemea (Koutsomadiotikos) rivers farther the west.4 The difficulty Pikoulas routes was ran pp. 40-45; 1995, pp. 31-35; with these in the past that they directly within the view of Lolos 1998, pp. 129-132; Marchand the fortifications of often an powerful Acrocorinth, prompting invading 2002, pp. 40-72. to seek an alternative course. army 5. Stroud 1971a, p. 127. For the east a route ran coast near identification of wheel ruts To the along the of the Saronic Gulf the presumably west to to this road a stretch port of Kenchreai, just of the modern coastal highway Epidauros.5 belonging along on route was of exposed bedrock the beach north The disadvantage of this that it passed close to the fortifications of Loutro Elenis, see Kenchreai I, p. 2; of Kenchreai, and these the road narrows between the sea to the beyond Salmon 1983, p. 37. east and the mass of Mt. Oneion to the west.6 Here a small force could 6. Pseudo-Skylax 54; Kenchreai I, an to easily block invader's progress the south. An invader with control of pp. 6-12. FORTIFICATIONS OF MOUNT ONEION, CORINTHIA 329 Figure 2.Mt. Oneion, looking south from the Isthmus. The Maritsa pass center. Photo T. E. is just right of Gregory sea the would have found it easier to circumvent the defenses along the Saronic Gulf.7 an When invading army found the natural routes around the ends of cross Mt. Oneion blocked, it might attempt to the mountain directly. It so one is possible to do through of several north-south passes, including are the Stanotopi and Maritsa passes, which the particular focus of this article. To attempt either of these passes, located in the eastern part of the an reasons to Oneion range, attacking army must have had serious bypass routes are the easier skirting its eastern and western ends. Not only the a mountain routes arduous, but they would place the attackers in position most well east of Corinth and outside the main routes to the Argolid. The reason at compelling for using these passes would have been that forces tempting to block the Isthmia corridor typically arrayed themselves at the eastern and western ends of the mountain, defending the easy passages and resources maintaining close contact with the and fortifications of Corinth and Kenchreai. An attempt to pass through the center of the mountain ridge, therefore, may have seemed to meeting concentrated 7. E.g., Diodoros (19.54.3) recorded preferable on or that in 316 Kassander avoided a con defenses the Saronic coast in the Xeropotamos valley. were reasons an to access to area frontation with the troops of Polyper There other for invader seek the chon, who held the Isthmus at that routes immediately south of Mt. Oneion and east of the traditional to the men time, by transporting his from at Argolid. Textual and archaeological evidence from the Classical period to see Stroud Megara Epidauros by sea; an tests to the existence of unfortified community at Solygeia in the rolling 1971a, p. 142. 8. see hills south of Oneion I).8 finds have been For Solygeia, Thuc. 4.42-45; immediately (Fig. Archaeological near town on Corinth 1.1, pp. 97-99; Stroud 1971b; reported the of Almyri and the hills of Brielthi and Vigla. Wiseman course 1994, pp. 269-280; 1978, Moreover, in the of geological work conducted by EKAS, scatters 56-58. See pp. Lorandou-Papantou of ancient material in the fields to the west of the modern village of Rhyto excava niou 1999 for N. M. Verdelis's were observed, indicating that the hills south of Solygeia, reached today by tions in 1957-1958; for finds elsewhere, a road south from Galataki, may have had settlement in see Stroud 1971b, p. 238; Wiseman heading significant aswell.9 The of these unfortified settlements 1978, p. 58. antiquity presence apparently 9. Tartaron et coast an either to al., forthcoming. within easy reach of the may have tempted enemy forage 330 WILLIAM R. CARAHER AND TIMOTHY E. GREGORY 0 1.000 2.000 3,000 4,000 Gulf of Corinth N Lechaion Corinth Isthmia Ancient Corinth > Feige B Examilia U Saronic Dkeriza Gulf rKenchreai Figure 3. Routes south through the in their or to out destructive raids on vulnerable centers of vicinity carry Isthmus: (A) the coastal route rural agricultural production. blocked during the Classical period In once an eastern addition, army crossed the mountain's end and by the long walls linking Corinth to ac moved south, it had bypassed the defenses of Acrocorinth and gained its port of Lechaion; (B) the tradi cess to a centers tional route south the complex network of roads leading toward the population following of the southwest Corinthia, such as Tenea, Kleonai, and Phlius, as well as Xeropotamos River; (C) the eastern an coastal road to the east of the Sanctuary of Zeus at Nemea. Thereafter, army could link up with passing routes or move west Stanotopi; (D) the pass; into the Argolid toward the through the uplands of Stanotopi to (E) the Maritsa pass. W. R. Caraher the northeastern P?loponn?se descend into Sikyonia, Arkadia, and an Achaia.10 It also would have been possible for invading army without to substantial naval power proceed south into the Epidauria, although there is little evidence for this actually occurring.11 Furthermore, east-west routes passing immediately to the south of Mt.