Icelandic Ideas of Heaven and Hell: Norse and Latin Christian Influences on the Icelandic View of Heaven and Hell 1153/1154- c.1400 Ólafur Hersir Arnaldsson Master thesis in history Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History (IAKH) Faculty of Humanities UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Spring 2018 ii Icelandic Ideas of Heaven and Hell: Norse and Latin Christian Influences on the Icelandic View of Heaven and Hell 1153/1154-c.1400 iii © Ólafur Hersir Arnaldsson 2018 Icelandic Ideas of Heaven and Hell: Norse and Latin Christian Influences on the Icelandic View of Heaven and Hell 1153/1154- c.1400 Ólafur Hersir Arnaldsson http://www.duo.uio.no/ Print: CopyCat Sentrum (Oslo) iv Abstract The thesis explores Icelandic ideas of Heaven and Hell from 1153/54 to c. 1400. The core of the various views expressed during the period in question are Christian, aligning with the prevalent views in Latin Christianity. Views stemming from the Bible, its interpretation and the patristic tradition. Still, there are discernible strong Norse influences. Themes from Old Norse religion are prominent, such as the Midgard Serpent and jötnar. Furthermore, elementary parts of Norse society influenced the Norse sources, such as þing, ríki and vinátta. When the sources are viewed collectively there emerges an Icelandic Heaven and Hell, which deviates to a greater or a lesser degree from Latin Christianity. The greatest deviation, in addition to Icelandic literary independence, is at the beginning of the thirteenth century. In contrast, at the close of the thirteenth century the views expressed are to a greater degree in accordance with Latin Christianity. v Acknowledgments It is fitting to begin at the conception of the thesis. My thanks go out to my supervisor Jón Viðar Sigurðsson, who advised me to look into the Icelandic hagiographies. Since then our numerous discussions and his crucial input in the last two years have been elementary to the project. This thesis is the fruit of that labour. Still, my utmost thanks go to my fiancé, Elfa Erlendsdóttir, who spent countless hours listening to me talking about the project. And then great many more reading the thesis and improving it with her invaluable comments. Gratias tibi ago. vi Contents 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Historiography............................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Sources .......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.1 Íslensk Hómilíubók ................................................................................................................. 6 1.2.2 Niðrstigningar saga ................................................................................................................ 7 1.2.3 Duggals Leiðsla ..................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.4 Heilagra Manna Søgur .......................................................................................................... 11 2. Hell .................................................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 12 2.2. Niðrstigningar Saga: The Fortress of Hell .................................................................................. 13 2.3. Duggals Leiðsla: Numerous Hells .............................................................................................. 18 2.4. Þing, Jötnar and Ríkiströll ........................................................................................................... 26 2.5. Jesus and The Midgard Serpent ................................................................................................. 37 2.6. Devoured and Tortured ............................................................................................................. 48 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 53 3. Heaven .............................................................................................................................................. 54 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 54 3.2 Niðrstigningar Saga: Paradiso ..................................................................................................... 54 3.3 Duggals Leiðsla and Íslensk Hómilíubók: Heavenly City ............................................................. 58 3.4 Íslensk Hómilíubók: Angels and Three Heavens. ........................................................................ 65 3.5 God and his Friends in Heaven ................................................................................................... 69 3.6 Saints and the Enchanted World ................................................................................................ 75 3.7 Kirkjustuldur and Staðamál ......................................................................................................... 87 3.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 96 4. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 98 5. Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 106 5.1 Primary Sources ........................................................................................................................ 106 5.2 Secondary Sources .................................................................................................................... 109 vii 1. Introduction “Ina hægri hönd rétti hann, því að hann leysti alla sína vini úr helvíti og laðaði þá með sér til eilífrar dýrðar.”1 “Þa melto helvitis buar viþ Satan: ʻFar a braut nu or sætum varom; ef þu mat, þa berstu nu hart viþ dyrðar konongon. Ecki villdom ver viþ hann eiga.ʼ”2 These two quotes from Íslensk Hómilíubók and Niðrstigningar Saga, respectively, bring the subject of the thesis to the fore, the characteristics of medieval Icelandic Heaven and Hell. The research question is thus: What kind of Heaven and Hell can we discern for the period 1152/53 to c. 1400 in Iceland? The short answer is that we can indeed see a peculiar Icelandic Heaven and Hell, which deviates from the prevailing trend in Latin Christianity. My claim is that during the first part of the thirteenth century, the Icelandic literary elite enjoyed a high level of independence which lead to the production of literature influenced by Old Norse religion and Norse society. This resulted in the creation of a unique view of Heaven and Hell.3 In Icelandic Hell we will see a Hell ruled by Satan, but not the absolute evil familiar to modernity, but a chieftain reliant on the consent of his followers, the demons, giants and trolls inhabiting Hell. We will also see how Satan takes on the form of the Midgard Serpent (Miðgarðsormr )4 to fight Jesus Christ, the great warrior king of Niðrstigningar Saga. And will see how Satan will fight for his domain, like the chieftains of Iceland fighting for their domains, which in Satan’s case leads to him losing his domain. Furthermore, friendship, that crucial social bond in the Free State Period, is central. Most noticeably as friendship with God, to gain entrance into Heaven and enjoy its eternal beatitudes. I will illustrate this by the way of comparing Niðrstigningar Saga to Íslensk Hómilíubók, an older work and Duggals Leiðsla, a later work. I will also take up some societal 1 He stretched out his righthand, for he freed all his friends from Hell and attracted to eternal glory (Sigurbjörn Einarsson, Guðrún Kvaran and Gunnlaugur Ingólfsson 1993: 53). 2 Then the inhabitants of Hell spoke to Satan: Leave our seats; if you can, fight firmly with the King of glory. We do not want to contend with him (Unger 1877b: 4). 3 Old Norse religion in its totality is not a part of the thesis, still I have familiarised myself with the subject. For numerous aspects of Old Norse religion, see Gro Steinsland, Ulf Drobin, Juha Pentikäinen & Preben Meulengracht Sørensen (Eds.): Nordisk Hedendom: Et symposium (1991). On the various myths of Old Norse religion, see Gro Steinsland: Mytene som skapte Norge: Myter og makt fra vikingtid til middelalder (2012). On Old Norse cosmology, see Anders Andrén: Tracing Old Norse Cosmology: The world tree, middle earth, and the sun from archaeological perspectives (2014). For a general overview of Old Norse religion, see E. O. G. Turville- Petre: Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia (1964). See also John Lindow: Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals and Beliefs (2001). For Old Norse religion pertaining to Iceland, see Ólafur Briem: Heiðinn siður á Íslandi (1985). 4 I have chosen to refer to the Midgard Serpent instead of the Norse name Miðgarðsormur, as the latter is cumbersome and breaks up the flow in the text.