THOMAS PYNCHON’S BLEEDING EDGE AND CORMAC MCCARTHY’S THE ROAD AS DYSTOPIAN 9/11 FICTION Master’s Thesis North American Studies Leiden University Thijs Grootveld s2299534 Date: July 8, 2019 Supervisor: Dr. J.C. Kardux Second reader: Dr. S.A. Polak Word Count: 17695 Table of Contents Introduction p. 1 Chapter 1: Theoretical Framework p. 5 Chapter 2: Reading McCarthy’s The Road as a Dystopian 9/11 Novel p. 16 Chapter 3: Reading Pynchon’s Bleeding Edge as a Dystopian 9/11 Novel p. 33 Conclusion p. 51 Works Cited p. 53 Grootveld 1 Introduction Post-9/11 literature attests to the cultural impact of the terrorist attacks, and offers fictional stories attempting to work through the cultural trauma 9/11 caused and suggest a way to move forward. Post-9/11 literature has become an important topic of academic debate within literary studies. Opening the debate in his 2009 article “Open Doors, Closed Minds”, Richard Gray argues that events such as the 9/11 attacks “are a defining element in our contemporary structure of feeling and they cannot help but impact profoundly on American writing”. Such events, he continues, “[generate] stories that cannot, yet must, be told”, due to their cultural and traumatic impact (129). As Gray points out, much early 9/11 fiction tells stories about families and relationships that were directly or indirectly affected by the trauma of 9/11. Gray criticizes these novels for telling familiar narratives about marital conflict and repeating traditional literary tropes. In this thesis, I will discuss two novels that use the dystopian genre to critically reflect on the political and social response to 9/11: Thomas Pynchon’s Bleeding Edge (2013) and Cormac McCarthy’s The Road (2006). These novels depict a United States that has been, or is going to be, devastated by a catastrophe that is seemingly, or in Pynchon’s case explicitly, inspired by 9/11 and the political and social response to it. I will examine how and with what effect these novels use dystopian themes and imagery to respond to the way American society is changed socially and politically because of political efforts to unify it and security measures that were taken in response to 9/11, and critically reflect on the political and social consequences of the attacks. Bleeding Edge and The Road make use of dystopian imagery to represent the United States during and after 9/11. They depict an exaggerated reality, and present a hyper-realistic depiction of 9/11 and its aftermath, emphasizing possible outcomes and consequences. According to Frank Serafini and James Blasingame, the dystopian novel usually describes a Grootveld 2 “world [that] has gone radically astray at some point in the future, as authors extrapolate on current social, political, or economic trends” (147). This means that dystopian fiction is influenced and fueled by historical events or conditions, usually in the author’s present. However, simultaneously dystopian literature tries to make a critical intervention. The dystopian 9/11 novels under discussion, as we will see, dramatize the potentially catastrophic consequences of the political and cultural responses to 9/11, such as “the [military] invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, the curtailment of civil liberties” in the name of homeland security, and xenophobia (Crownshaw 760). The attacks on the World Trade Center were watched by the majority of the American people, arguably the whole world, through live television and endless replays of the images of the second plane and the collapsing towers in the following days and weeks, which generated a collective feeling of terror. Gray, quoting Jenny Edkins, claims that “9/11 was the moment when ‘trauma collided with the time of the state, the time of capitalism, the time of routine,’ producing a ‘curious unknown time, a time with no end in sight’” (After the Fall 8). Gray connects this to “Freud’s distinction between grief and melancholia, which can be explained as the difference between [mourning] and an ‘open wound’”, which is a literal translation of the Greek “trauma” (8). Following Cathy Caruth, Gray argues that trauma can be defined as the response to “an event the full horror of which is not and cannot be assimilated or experienced fully at the time but only belatedly” (“Open Doors” 129). This implies that such an event is not directly and immediately witnessed, but rather partially, afterwards, or not at all. The terrorist attacks of 9/11 were a culmination of the rising tension between the United States and the Islamic Middle East. Proving to the world that the United States could be vulnerable, the terrorist attacks signified to some that the U.S. “was no longer secure and, to that extent, no longer home” for the American people (Gray, After the Fall 5). The events Grootveld 3 were more than an attack, according to Habermas, as “‘they also destroyed an icon [the Twin Towers] in the household imagery of the American nation’” (qtd. in Gray, After the Fall 6). Habermas thus contends that it was not merely a physical attack on the United States, but that the terrorist attack also damaged the immaterial belief in the United States. This continued to challenge the notion of the U.S. as an invincible, utopian land of the free, following earlier attacks such as the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center. Furthermore, the events of 9/11 created a new “Other”, a faceless, abstract adversary of the United States. The creation of an Other, as Kristian Versluys points out, “is an act of exclusion, whereby, through prejudice, ignorance, or both, one refuses to treat someone else fully as an individual” (150). During the Cold War, America’s enemy was the Soviet Union, which was believed to pose the largest threat to United States’ sovereignty and to global peace and democracy. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and especially after 9/11, Islam came to be seen as the Other, which was only reinforced by the religious and ethnic background of the terrorists involved. In his influential article “Clash of Civilizations?”, Samuel Huntington suggests that “[w]ith the end of the Cold War, international politics moves out of its Western phase, and its centerpiece becomes the interaction between the West and Non-Western civilizations” (23). He argues that “the peoples and governments of non- Western civilizations […] join the West as movers and shapers of history”, and in doing so become their equal, as opposed to being subjects (23). With this, Huntington suggests that it is not a clash of ideologies, faiths, or states, but a clash of cultures. He furthermore proposes, quoting M.J. Akbar, that “[t]he West’s ‘next confrontation’ […] ‘is definitely going to come from the Muslim world’” (32). This means that the othering of Muslims had already begun by the end of the Cold War, and was well underway in the 1990s. 9/11 was therefore not a starting point of the perception of the Muslim as the Other, but rather a result of a process that had been developing for over a decade. Grootveld 4 The two post-9/11 novels I will discuss mobilize dystopian imagery and rhetorical strategies to critically interrogate constructions of the Other before and after 9/11, and to warn against the consequences of how the United States deals with social and political issues present in American society around 9/11, such as collective trauma, consumerism and egocentrism. The first chapter of this thesis will outline the theoretical and scholarly framework for my analysis. I will first introduce the main concepts of trauma theory as proposed by Mieke Bal, to be followed by a brief overview of the scholarly debate on 9/11, by among others Gray, Michael Rothberg, Elizabeth Anker, Marc Redfield and Lucy Bond. The second and third chapters will discuss the use of dystopian imagery and rhetorical strategies in Cormac McCarthy’s The Road and Thomas Pynchon’s Bleeding Edge, respectively. Through a close reading of both these novels in the light of trauma theory, and the genre of dystopian fiction, I will investigate how these novels address the ways in which the collective trauma caused by 9/11 is used politically and socially and what could be the consequences of doing so. Furthermore, I will examine how the encounter with the Other is represented and how these novels provide a warning against developments before and after 9/11. Grootveld 5 Chapter 1: Theoretical Framework In this chapter, I will introduce trauma theory and connect it to American literature after 9/11 and dystopian literature in general, in order to provide a theoretical framework for my claim that dystopian conventions and rhetorical strategies in post-9/11 literature offer a productive way of addressing the traumas caused by 9/11. As trauma theory became one of the dominant fields within literary studies in the 1990s, it is not surprising that the cultural response to the 9/11 attacks was widely conceptualized in terms of (collective) trauma, both in the media and later in literature, film and literary studies. Aviva Briefer and Sam J. Miller argue that 9/11 “scramble[d] the relationship between the real and the imaginary”, as “[t]he cinematic resonance of the destruction of the towers provides a bleak version of life imitating art” (5-6). Seeing the destruction of the World Trade Center seemed to be as if watching a movie about the destruction of the United States. As Anne Keniston and Jeanne Quinn point out, “the tension between the symbolic suggestiveness of the WTC and the fact of its destruction is central to many literary texts written in the wake of 9/11” (1).